MW^WMMm

OF

PHYSIOLOGICAL AND SYSTEMATIC

BOTANY.

WITH PLATES.

BY GEORGE SUMNER, M. D,

The beauties of the wilderness are HIS,
That make so gay the solitary place.

Cowper.

A&$

HARTFORD,
OLIVER D. COOKE.

18°20.

DISTRICT OF CONNECTICUT, ss.

*t*i% BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the fifth day of
***** May, in the forty-fourth year of the Independence of the
United States of America, Oliver D. Cooke, of the said District,
hath deposited in this office the title of a Book, the right where-
of he claims as Proprietor, in the words following, to wit : "A
Compendiumof Physiological and Systematic Botany, with plates,
by George Sumner, M. D." in conformity to the act of the Con-
gress of the United States, entitled, " An act fcr the encourage-
ment of learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts and
Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the
times therein mentioned."

CHAS. A. INGERSOLL,
Clerk of the District of Connecticut.
A true copy of Record, examined and sealed by me,

CHAS. A. INGERSOLL,
Clerk of the District of Connecticut

P. B. GOODSELL, PRINTER.

TO
THE RIGHT REVEREND

THOMAS C. BROWNELL, DD. LLD,

BISHOP OF CONNECTICUT,

THIS LITTLE VOLUME

IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED,

BY HIS OBEDIENT SERVANT-

AND FRIEND,

THE AUTHOR,

32821

PREFACE.

OF the elementary works on Botany to which the student

finds easy access, the Introduction of Dr. Smith, with the notes

of the American editor, is justly preferred to every other. It

comes from the pen of a lively writer, who ranks pre-eminent

among the botanists of the present day ; and it teaches us, as

we pursue the path of science, to cull the flowers on the way :

but it is made " the vehicle for many observations, criticisms,

and communications," which are uninteresting to most of his

readers. Its numerous references to expensive English works,

and to foreign plants, which are alike unknown in this country,

add rather to the expense than to this excellent Introduction.

The Principles of Botany, by Professor Willdenow, of Berlin,

and the Physiological Botany of Mr. Keith, maintain a high rank

among the elementary works of their kind, but having never

been republished in this country, they are comparatively rare.

The author deems it necessary to observe, that many of the

following pages have been selected from these and other works,

and that the arrangement which he has pursued is very similar

to that of Dr. Smith, though several alterations are adopted,

which it is thought will be regarded as improvements. The

" Imperfect plants" are arranged in a separate chapter, the

natural orders of Jussieu are explained, and a general summary
1 *

VI. PREFACE.

tak^n chiefly from Mirbel constitutes the concluding 1 chapter,
The technical English terms, which occur in the severaf Floras
recently published in the this country, are defined and illustra-
ted by a reference to well known plants, but the Latin terms,
and the criticisms which are found in most elementary works
of this kind have been omitted.

This Compendium was designed as an Introduction to the
study of American plants, and it is published for the convenience
of those who wish to pursue it.

It was designed as a substitute for the more expensive volumes
of Smith, Barton, Willdenow and Keith, and it has been com-
piled for the convenience of those who wish to consult the
Floras which have, within a short time, been published in various
sections of the United States ; other merits it does not claim.

Botanical students who wish to obtain an accurate
knowledge of the various plants that meet their view,
will often find it necessary to compare them with others,
to which they are nearly allied. Hence the indispen-
sable utility of an herbarium which shall contain a
collection of dried plants, usually arranged according

HERBARIUM. Vlj,

to the system of Linnaeus or Jussieu. The student
who wishes to form such a collection will require some
instruction.

When their flowers are fully expanded, the plants
should be gathered, placed between folds of paper,
and subjected to a moderate pressure until they are
thoroughly dry. When the specimens are numerous
or juicy, the papers should be frequently removed,
and others are to be substituted for those which have
imbibed the moisture of the plants, and the more faith-
fully this direction is followed, the more perfectly will
the specimens retain their original colour. Most plants
should be gathered when they are entirely dry, but
the Mosses may be collected at any season, thrown into
a vessel of water and then laid between the folds of mois-
tened writing paper, and subjected to pressure as in
other cases. The Mushrooms are preserved with the
greatest difficulty, and hence some have resorted to
models, and some to coloured engravings for the illus-
tration of that obscure class of vegetables. When the
specimens are thoroughly dry they are to be arranged
according to some method, and the papers to which
they are attached should contain the name, locality,
time of flowering, and whatever else is interesting res-
pecting the plants which are in this way preserved.

An herbarium is frequently injured by insects as well
as by moisture ; and it is remarkable that plants of an

Vlll. PREFACE,

acrid nature, are of all others most frequently devour-
ed. Some essential oil is one of the best preservatives
against this misfortune ; and we thus resort to the same
armature which nature employs for the preservation of
the tender flower. And with all his care it is necessary
to caution the student against disappointment. Many
plants turn black in spite of our exertions, while others
retain their freshness with comparatively little care.
Yellow, scarlet, and green, are among the lasting col-
ours ; but the blue, the pale red, and the white, part
with their beauty and their freshness together.

The student should also be provided vvith a magnifi-
er, which will enable him to inspect the flowers of the
Grasses, and others equally minute ; and a close tin
box of any convenient size and shape, will enable him
to preserve the specimens which he gathers, several
days ; and even then, they do not wither, but become
black and mouldy.

But instruments will be of little use, unless he re-
sorts to books, for instruction. The Plants of Boston,
by Dr. Bigelow ; the Manual of Botany, for the Nor-
thern States, by Mr. Eaton ; the Flora of Philadelphia,
by Dr. Barton ; the American Genera, by Mr. Nutall,
and the Botany of the Southern States, by Dr. Elliott,
have all been recently published in the Urjted States.

Nor should I omit to mention the Catalogue of North
American Plants by the late Dr. Muhlenburg, and the

BOTANICAL WORKS. IX.

Grasses, which he has more fully described. The last
mentioned work, however, as well as the Flora of Mr.
Pursh, are in Latin. The student who wishes to ex-
amine the productions of our Forests, in a more allur-
ing dress, will derive much gratification from the pe-
rusal of the splend'd volumes of Michaux, entitled the
American Sylva.

CONTENTS

PAGE.

Introduction", ...... 1

Chapter I. Vegetable Life, ... 23

Chapter II. Germination, . ... 30

Chapter III. Vegetation, ... 39

Chapter IV. Texture of Vegetables, . . 53

Chapter V. Sap and Secretions, . . 74

Chapter VI. Duration and Surface, . . 92

Chapter VII. Roots, . . . . 97

Chapter VIII. Trunks, . . . .112

Chapter IX. Leaves, .... 120

Chapter X. Appendages. . . . 153

Chapter XI. Flower Stalk and Inflorescence, 163

Chapter XII. Flower, .... 167

Chapter XIII. Functions of the Stamens and

Pistils, • 188

Xll. CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Chapter XIV. Fruit, . . . 201

Chapter XV. Imperfect Plants, . . 220

Chapter XVI. Classification and Nomenclature, 232

Chapter XVII. System of Linnaeus, . . 240

Chapter XVIII. System of Jussieu, , 252

Summary.

INTRODUCTION.

THOSE who are about to commence a study
which has hitherto been regarded merely as an orna
mental branch of education, may reasonably enquire
what advantages they are to derive from their botani-
cal pursuits ; what reward for the fatigue of patient
and long continued research ?

It is scarcely necessary to point to the examples of
many illustrious men, who have devoted their time to
the cultivation of botanical science. They have erect-
ed a noble fabric, and the student who enters its por-
tals, feels interested to know, by whom the materials
were collected, and by whose exertions they have been
thus judiciously arranged. He is surrounded by monu-
ments of their ingenuity, and pauses to enquire, in
what section of the world, and at what period, lived the
men whose names are thus honorably preserved from
oblivion.

Of these men, some have been distinguished for the
accuracy of their descriptions, some for the extent of
their acquirements, and some for the intrepidity, with
which they braved danger and endured privations.
Those only who have most successfully endeavoured
to advance the interest of our science, and to promote

2 INTRODUCTION.

the welfare of mankind, will claim from us the tribute
of a brief, yet respectful notice.

Like other branches of natural history, this is com-
paratively of modern origin. Previous to the sixteenth
century, a few plants only were known, and these were
such as the credulity of former ages had endowed with
extraordinary virtues, and many of them were regarded
with a degree of veneration to which they were poorly
entitled. The wisdom of him, whose knowledge ex-
tended from the proud Cedar of Lebanon, to the hum-
ble moss which invested the walls of Judea, had not
been revealed to his successors, and it was long, long
before the mantle of Theophrastus, the father of the
science, rested on the shoulders of a worthy son.

About the middle of the sixteenth century, several
works were published, in which were delineated ma-
ny of the European plants, and their authors are still
distinguished in the annals of botany. Among them we
recognize Fuschius of Germany, and Lobel of Eng-
land ; names associated in the mind of the florist, with
some of the most splendid of his treasures.* Among
them Clusius also ranks preeminent. He is said to
have been one of the greatest men of his age, who
prosecuted the study of botany with more zeal and
perseverance than any of his predecessors ; and with
a diligence which his followers have never surpassed.
He visited almost every section of Europe, encounter-
ed many hardships, suffered much from sickness, and
at last fell a victim to his bold and untimely exertions.
" His works shew us the great botanist, being enriched

* The Cardinal flower Lobelia Cardinalis is universally ad-
mired for the rich hue of its blossoms ; and on account of the
beauty of the Fuschia, it has been introduced into the gardens
of Europe. They are both American plant?.

HISTORY. «J

with neat distinct figures, and masterly description*.
It was a pity that a man of so great merit, should have
suffered so much, and even become the first martyr for
botany.*"

Contemporary with these lived Conrad Gesner, a
native of Switzerland. At an early age Gesner turned
his attention to the charms of his native mountains, whose
romantic scenery, whose rich and varied productions,
have excited the admiration of every beholder. Every
year did the persevering Gesner visit some portion of
the Alps, collecting the plants which fell in his way ;
and frequently did he receive from his distant friends
and admirers, the useful and the rare productions of
other countries. In this way his herbarium became
rich and extensive. He it was, who first described the
tobacco plant, which was soon afterwards introduced
into Europe by Sir Walter Raleigh, and has since be-
come an important article of luxury and of commerce.
But this skilful observer of nature is more particularly
distinguished, as the first who proposed to divide plants
into classes, so as to secure the advantages of system ;
and Caesalpinus should be remembered as the first,
who carried into effect the proposal of Gesner. His
system however was too imperfect to gain many adher-
ents, and botanists continued to describe plants, with-
out order, and very often without precision.

About two hundred years since, lived John and Cas-
par Bauhin. These brothers were natives of Lyons in
France, and " the effect which their skill and assidui-
ty had on the state of the science, was such as to form
an era in its history. The sagacity of the elder broth-
er detected the errors of his predecessors, and his

* Wildenov/.

INTRODUCTION.

General History of Plants, containing the result of fiftj
years patient and acute observation, was enriched
with masterly descriptions, declared by the immortal
Haller to have been at that day unequalled."*
yU The younger Baujtn soon pursued the steps of his
brother, with the same praise worthy diligence, but
with greater facilities for acquiring information ; and
though less critical, and less accurate, he was more
popular than his brother, and his career was more
brilliant than that of any preceding botanist. He per-
formed a most acceptable service, by designating the
different names which other writers had applied to the
same plant, and his work is still a key to the reposi-
tories of ancient botany.

But the extensive writings of the Bauhins did not
give to botany the regular form which it has since
assumed, for the system of Caesalpinus, memorable
only as the first production of its kind, had been ne-
glected, perhaps forgotten by his successors, and the
subject was entirely overlooked, till revived by Mor-
rison of Scotland. He was soon followed by Rivinus
.1 German botanist, whose system, founded upon the
number and regularity of the petals, was so simple and
;o easily learned, that it found several adherents on
the continent of Europe. It had been the practice
of the systematic writers who preceded Rivinus, to
separate trees from herbs, and to aim at an arrangement
purely natural ; but he rejected the former, because
it marred the uniformity of his plan, and renounced
the pursuit of affinities as uncertain and abstruse. The
simplicity of this system was one of its greatest excel-
lencies ; but unfortunately, the variableness of the or-

• Edinburgh Encyclopedia.,

HISTORY. £>

gans on which it was founded, was an insurmountable
objection to its general use.

And though it was received by some of the German
botanists, that of Ray, possessing still greater excellen-
cies, was more generally adopted in England. Its au-
thor, who was aclergymau of the English Church, was
equally distinguished for his piety and learning, for his
very eminent talents and indefatigable industry ; a hap-
py combination of excellencies, from which great im-
provements might be confidently expected. He pub-
lished a General History of Plants, embracing nearly
20,000 species and varieties, and at the commencement
of the eighteenth century, completed a system, " in
which the order of nature where it could be traced, is
carefully pointed out, and the affinities of plants delin-
eated with a masterly hand."*

The merits of his arrangement were unquestionably
very great, and when we compare it with those of an
earlier date, we shall not wonder that it was generally
adopted in the native country of its author.

Contemporary with Ray lived Tournefort of France,
who at an early age manifested a partiality for the same
pursuits, and was afterwards distinguished for the in-
trepidity with which he collected plants, and the suc-
cess with which he arranged them. After investigating
the natural productions of Aix and the neighbouring
Alps, he was led by the spirit of discovery to the
summit of the Pyrenees, and over the hills of Spain,
where he twice encountered the robbers, who had
sought in those sequestered retreats, an escape from
justice, and a repository for their plunder. Finding
him loaded with dried herbs and poor bread, they wil-

* Smith.

2*

b INTRODUCTION.

lingly relinquished their spoil, and permitted the en«
terprising traveller to return without further moles-
tation to his native country. Under the patronage of
Louis his king, he visited Greece and many of the
provinces of Asia, and as he rambled over classic
ground, he gathered the same treasures, which had
centuries before been described by Theophrastus.
After this he returned to Paris where he published his
Institutions, an excellent work requiring no higher
praise, than that'' it became the torch which illumined
the early path of Linnaeus, and was the source of that
more powerful light which the writings of the latter
afterwards diffused."

But we must pass by the names of Kaempfer, Celsius,
Dillenius, and Vaillant, names long distinguished in
the annals of botany, though eclipsed by the superior
splendour of one who was about to appear. His name
was Charles Linnaeus ; and it commands more than cold
respect, it has the veneration of the scientific world.
He was born at a small village in Sweden, on the 3d of
May 1707, and exhibited, during the first years of his
life, a prediliction for those studies which he after-
wards pursued with unequalled success. His father
being himself a clergyman destined him for the church,
but

u Lightly he rambled over meadow and mount,
And neglected his task for the flowers on the way."

The consequent deficiency of his academical ac
quirements soon became known, and the father, disap-
pointed by the perverseness of his wayward son, was
about to devote him to a more humble occupation, when
the interposition of a neighbouring physician placed
the young Linnaeus in the road of usefulness and glory.

HISTORY. 7

The friendship of Rothman enabled him to pursue his
studies three years at Wexico, after which, poor and
without a friend, he entered the university of Upsal.

But merit like his could not be overlooked, and it
was not long ere Celsius, the first botanist in Sweden,
was charmed with his zeal and intelligence, and re-
lieved him of the burden of poverty with which he
was encumbered. He was afterwards invited by the
Academy of Sciences at Upsal, to explore the cold re-
gions of Lapland, and the alacrity with which this pro-
posal was accepted, and the faithfulness with which the
objects of his journey were secured, were equally
creditable to the zeal and perseverance of Linnaeus.
Previous to his Lapland tour, the inhabitants of Torneo
were frequently distressed by the loss of their cattle,
two hundred of which are said to have annually per-
ished on a single mountain. He went to their pastures
to ascertain the cause of this calamity, and found it to
proceed from the young leaves of the Water Hemlock,
a poisonous plant, which grew abundantly in the marshy
grounds of that country. He told the inhabitants how
the loss of which they complained might be avoided
without difficulty or expense, nor is it surprising that
he should consider this as the most interesting event of
his journey. What better compensation for its fatigues,
what more heartfelt satisfaction could he receive, than
that which he derived from the consciousness of saving
the impoverished Laplander from the loss of his cattle
and the horrors of famine.

After his return to Sweden, he visited Holland for
the purpose of receiving a medical degree, and there
he became acquainted with Boerhaave, the most eminent
physician of his age, and with Clifford, scarcely less
distinguished for the extent of his botanical treasures.

3 INTRODUCTION.

By the latter he was employed a9 an assistant, and du-
ring the years which he spent in this happy situation.
he planned the system, which with some variations has
been received by most of his successors, and publish-
ed among other works, a description of the plants which
he had formerly gathered in Lapland, and also of those
which were collected in the garden of his friend.
Having in the mean time visited the most richly stored
gardens of England and France, he returned after an
absence of nearly four years, to his native country ;
where through the kindness of an eminent Swedish
statesman, he at length obtained the great object of his
ambition, the botanical chair at Upsal. In this situa-
tion he was unusually popular, and his increasing fame
attracted students from every quarter, among whom
were several, who imbibed, and diffused throughout
the civilized world, a taste for the science over which
Linnaeus presided.

" The father who had been so often grieved at the
perverseness of his son's disposition for hunting after
plants and worms, and who had therefore concluded
that he was fit only to be a maker of Swedish brogues,
fortunately lived to see him, not only professor of bot-
any, but dean of the College of Physicians at Upsal,
caressed by the grandees of Sweden, and honored by
all the literati of Europe."

At the age of forty-six, by the government of his
own country he was created knight of the Polar Star,
and »oon afterwards, he was elected a member of the
Ptoyal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and of the Roy-
al Society at London. " Botanical studies we have
seen, were the first to engage the youthful mind of
Linnaeus ; in these he persevered through life with de-
light, and on the advancement which he lent to the

HISTORY. »

science of Botany, will his future fame chiefly rest.
So ardent did his passion for plants remain even after
his health had began to decline, that disease was some-
times pat to flight by the mere acquisition of botanical
treasures. He was lying ill of the gout, and unable to
move, when Kalm arrived from America ; but the
sight of the transatlantic rarities brought home by
this zealous collector, so much roused his spirits that
he soon found the use of his limbs and conquered the
malady."*

And when in consequence of the infirmities of old
age and sickness he was unable to perform the duties
of his office, he found in his only son an able assistant,
and a worthy successor. The brilliant career of the
latter however was of short duration, and the Linnaean
treasures, since his death, have been transferred from
Sweden to England ; and fortunately for the science,
they are in the possession of the most distinguished
botanist! of the Island.

To trace the progress of systematic botany from the
days of Linnaeus, would be to transgress the limits of
this Introduction. It will scarcely be deemed neces-
sary to mention the names of Thunberg his successor,
Vahl his favorite pupil, Gmelin, and Pallas of Russia,
Wildenow the very distinguished professor at Berlin,
Murray, and Hoffman of Germany, Curtis, Withering,
and Smith, of England, Decandolle of Geneva, Jussieu,
Lamark, and Desfontaines of France. Much credit is
due to these, and also to the worthy president of the
Royal Society, for his early zeal in promoting a sci-
ence, of which, he is at once the most judicious and the
most liberal patron. Nor should we omit the names of

* Edinburgh Encyclopedia.

t Sir J. E. Smith, President of the Linnaean Society.

1U INTRODUCTION.

the unfortunate Loefling, who fell a victim to his exer-
tions in South America, of Jacquin and Swartz, who
visited the West India Islands in order to investigate
their natural productions ; of Brown, who with the
same view resided several years at New-Holland, and
of Humboldt and Bonpland, two enterprising travellers,
who spent five years exploring the fertile regions of
equinoctial America.

I turn from these men, learned and respected, to
speak of those botanists, who have investigated the
productions of our own land. Among them I notice
with pleasure the venerable name of John Bartram.
His occupation was that of an industrious farmer, but
he pursued with equal diligence the avocations of a
naturalist. His inquisitive eye was alwa3's exercised
in the examination of vegetables, which he surveyed
through the various stages of their growth, and the
beauty of their structure did not fail to impress his re-
flecting mind. Not satisfied with the survey of his
own paternal fields, he visited most of the provinces of
this country, and in this favorite pursuit, was neither
discouraged by difficulties, nor impeded by danger.
He explored forests marked by no human footstep but
of the savage warrior, and extended his researches to
Florida, where even at this day, danger treads on the
heel of the bold adventurer who dares pursue the steps
of the persevering Bartram. He returned, and on the
banks of the Schuylkill three miles from Philadelphia,
commenced the formation of his garden. It was the
first effort of the kind which had ever been made on
this side the Atlantic, and it was eminently successful.
There he collected in the compass of a few acres,
tho*e plants which he had soug'it with so much dili-
gence and fatigue, and enjoyed the luxury of a para-

HISTORY. 1 1

dise which his own hands had formed. Mr. Bartram is
represented by one who knew him best, as " a man of
modest and gentle manners, frank, cheerful, and of
great good nature, a lover of justice, truth and charity.
He was himself an example of filial, conjugal and paren-
tal affection. His humanity, gentleness and compassion
were manifested on all occasions, and were even ex-
tended to the animal creation."*

The name of Bannister should not be omitted ; for
Ray has termed him a most learned man , and consummate
botanist. He resided in Virginia, where he formed a
catalogue of plants, with descriptions generally correct
and sometimes elegant, and one of his successors has
given perpetuity to his name by associating it with a
family of climbing plants.

He was soon followed by Clayton, the correspondent
of the learned in Europe, and the author of the Flora
of Virginia. This was one of the earliest works which
was arranged by Gronovius according to the Linnaean
system, and the student, who has an opportunity to
compare it with those of a more recent date, will ac-
knowledge his obligation to the Swedish reformer for
the introduction of specific names.

We are reminded of Houston, who first described
many of the Canadian plants, by the humble but very
common Bluetts,t which during the spring months
whiten the hilly pastures of New England. Kalm,
though a gleaner in the same field of discovery, was
equally meritorious and perhaps still more fortunate.
He was the pupil of Linnaeus, who having spent three
years on this continent, returned with those treasures

* Barton's Medical and Physical Journal.

t Houstonia Cerulia frequently named Eye-bright.

12

INTRODUCTION.

which so animated his master as to dispel the anguish of
his malady and relieve him from a tedious confinement*.
Kalm was a Swedish divine, who was afterwards elec-
ted professor at Abo, and the American Laurel* which
has been dedicated to his memory, is a splendid monu-
ment of his worth as a botanist.

Many of the plants of the New England states were
first enumerated by Cutler, while those of the south and
west were brought to light by the labours of Walter
and Fraser.

We may well feel gratified to gaze on forests which
excel all others in the variety and usefulness of their
productions. They had charms to tempt the intrepid
Michaux, from a climate the most salubrious, a soil
the most productive, from the pleasures of refined so-
ciety, from the bosom of his family, and the circle of
his friends. They had allurements to retain him
twelve years in this happy exile, during which time he
explored every recess from Georgia to Maine, at one
time investigating the productions of nature, at another
the improvements of art, always seeking and always
ready to communicate useful information. From him,
probably for the first time we learn that the single fam-
ily of Oak comprehends within the limits of our own
country, more species than the whole amount of the
trees of Europe. One hundred and forty trees have been
enumerated in our forests, of which ninety-five are em-
ployed in the arts, while those of France contain less than
twenty, only seven ofwhich have been used for building.
The vain champion ©f reason and philosophy, whose
name deserves not to be remembered, once rested an
argument on the diminutive productions of our soil.

* Kalmia.

HISTORY. i^>

He little knew how much it surpassed in many respects
the favourite abode of his kindred philosophers. Michaux
has not only told us what trees enrich the different sec-
tions of our country, but he has mentioned the various
uses to which they are appropriated, on which account
his work is one of the most interesting, as well as most
valuable, in the whole range of botany. His object in
visiting this country, was to ascertain what of its vast
productions might with advantage be transferred to
France, and when this was accomplished he returned
to Europe. The publication of his work was entrust-
ed to his son,* who had accompanied him in these re-
searches, and he soon afterwards fell a victim to his
exertions, while exploring the fruitful regions of Mada-
gascar. The diligent enquirer after truth, the devot-
ed patriot may imitate but will never surpass the ex-
ample of the elder Michaux.

Among American botanists none have ranked higher
than the late Dr. Muhlenburg of Lancaster. While
performing his parochial duties this venerable clergy-
man is said to have been extensively useful to his poor
parishioners, by teaching them the healing efficacy of
their native plants. How delightful must have been
his employment, whose life was devoted to the attain-
ment of useful information, which diffused the smiles
of gladness around the abode of misery, and made him
the ever welcome visitor of his friends. Such was
the employment of a man whose works — whose opin-
ions — whose hints — whose very doubts have contribu-
ted to the advancement of botanical science.

* F. A. Michaux, whose splendid work on the forest trees o:
North America has been recently published in Philadelphia.

3

14 INTRODUCTION.

As a public teacher however, he was less distinguish-
ed than the late Professor Barton of Philadelphia.
Like the pupils of Linnaeus, his were numerous ; and
many of them having imbibed his spirit, have cultiva-
ted, with zeal and success, the science which contribu-
ted to the usefulness and pleasure of their benevolent
instructor.

But while these men were employed in collecting,
describing, and arranging the plants of different coun-
tries, and accelerating the progress of systematic bota-
others with equal zeal, devoted their time to the
study of vegetable physiology.

Among them were Grew of England, and 3Ialpigbi
of Italy : both distinguished for the originality and cor-
rectness of their observations, which were for a long
while adopted, without alteration or improvement.
Thev were succeeded by Dr. Hales, a clergyman of
the English Church, and a member of the Royal So-
ciety, whose work is described as a perfect model of
experimental investigation, and whose character is at
least equally excellent ; for he was " pious, modest,
indefatigable, and born for the discovery of truth."

He was soon followed by Duhamel of Paris, and
Bonnet of Geneva, the former a most worthy botanist,
whose physiological observations arc ingenious and
instructive ; the latter, distinguished for his luminou3
experiments on the uses of leaves.

Nor should we omit to mention the excellent Gaert-
ner, a German physician, whose work is a monument
of the author's accuracy and patience, and a repository
of information respecting the structure and physiology
of the seed. And it would be equally unjust to pass by
the names of Mirbel and Knight, for in the following

res, we shall have frequent occasion to derive in-

-

stroctioa from their publications, and to reier tc
eries and opinions.

Mr. Knight is a worthy English gentleman, residing
near London, nor is he less distinguished for his prac-
tical improvements in the culture of plants, than for
the philosophical opinions which led to their adoption.

Mirbel, the equally worthy professor of botany at
the Athenaeum in Paris, has published a treatise en
vegetable physiology, which is altogether the most in-
teresting, as well as the most complete, in this depart-
ment of our science.

Let us close this rapid sketch of its advancement,
with a few observations respecting the utility of the
Science, which so many illustrious men have made at
once, their ,; time's employment, and their leisure's
charm."

The objects, to which our attention is invited, are
both interesting and important ; interesting, for they
clothe the earth with verdure and beauty : and impor-
tant, because from them we derive all the comforts and
conveniences of life. Nor is it necessary to prove, for
it has been established by the experience of ages, that
the science, which reveals the nature and uses of ob-
jects like these, may be of great practical utility.

More important, and more deserving our attention
at the present time, is its influence on the mental pow-
ers ; giving energy to the weak, purity to the vicious.
and contentment to the troubled mind ; at once the
source of innocence, tranquillity, and joy. Many have
attempted to delineate the most eligible course of edu-
cation, and the claims of history to enlighten, of poetry
to charm the human mind, and of the sciences to give it
capacity and strength, have long been duly estimated
and improved. All have their peculiar excellencies,

16 INTRODUCTION".

which become more or less conspicuous, according as
they promote the enjoyment of their respective pur-
suers, and enable them to accomplish with facility the
duties of life.

More recently chemistry has become a favourite
branch of instruction, and it has strong claims to our at-
tention. Its intimate connection with the arts, the pre-
cision of its language, and more especially the brillian-
cy of its experiments, exhibiting little less than creative
power, have thrown around the lahratory of the chem-
ist, a lustre and a charm, sufficient to arouse the most
listless observer.

But while chemistry unfolds the latent energies of
creation, and arms us with the power of the elements,
natural history displays the treasures of a world, and
makes them subservient to our enjoyment and use.
Interesting in all its relations, whether we pursue it for
pleasure, or employment, for amusement, or instruc-
tion, we are sure of our reward. And especially when
we turn our attention to the vegetable kingdom, whose
magnificent treasures give life and gaiety to millions of
animated beings, treasures, without which plenty has
no overflowing cup, and joy no flowery wreath, we
shall no longer despise the science which displays them
to our view. Then we shall justly value it, as the
source of innocent amusement, of practical information,
and of mental improvement.

As an innocent amusement, it will afford recreation to
the man of business, and employment, happy employ-
ment to the man of leisure. To both it will yield that
serene satisfaction, that cheerful independence, which
look for happiness, not to fickle worms of the dust, but
to the great source of light and life. And having once
learned to read the volume of nature, it is always open

ADVANTAGES. Vt

and before them ; and every plant becomes a monu-
ment of pleasure, displaying its interesting organs, re-
vealing its useful properties* and associated with pleas-
ant recollections. A single example will serve to illus-
trate the truth of this observation. In almost every
section of the United States, is found a weed, which to
the eye of a common observer, presents no idea of
usefulness or beauty ; but it reminds the botanist of
the same plant, which, presented by the Roman war-
rior, became the sacred pledge of friendship, the same
Vervain with which their sacrifices were garnished, the
same which formed a garland for their priests, and a
wreath for their temples. He remembers, that gather-
ed on a moonless night, it was employed by the Druids
to remove diseases, conciliate friendships, and secure
the accomplishment of every wish ; and though as an
amulet it has lost its charm, and its reputation as a rem-
edy, it is still a welcome intruder for the ideas which it
recalls. Associations of this kind render botany at all
times pleasing and instructive. But as the source of
useful information, it has still stronger claims. Perhaps
the victim of disease is at this moment, trampling under
feet the very plant, which if properly applied would
restore him to health. I need not say how pleasant it
is to know the properties of those plants, by which we
are immediately surrounded. Their history and ap-
plication to the various purposes of domestic economy,
should be investigated by every man who would be ex-
tensively useful to those around him.

By the botanic researches ofBartramand his compan-
ions, the Magnolia and the Azalea, as well as numer-
ous other ornaments of our forests, were transferred to
the princely gardens of Europe. By the labours of
Michaux his country was enriched with resources more

18 INTRODUCTION.

valuable and more lasting, than the monuments of ftal-
ian and Grecian art, which victory enabled her armies
to transfer to Paris.

But plants cannot be successfully cultivated without
a knowledge of their natural habitation and wants, and
therefore we find that gardening, the most elegant, and
agriculture the most useful of all arts, are improved on-
ly in those countries in which botany is made subservi-
ent to their advancement. And when a knowledge of
this science is more generally diffused throughout our
own country, we may expect to see it more frequently
enriched with fields, and adorned with gardens, which
while they bestow honor on their possessors, shall
prove a pleasant recreation to the old, and a useful
study to the young, exerting their salutary influence on
both. Nor should its influence on the moral charac-
ter be entirely disregarded. The late President
Dwight was an eminent champion of the virtue which
lie practised. Often did he direct the attention of his
pupils to Sweden, to point out the influence of natural
history on the moral character of man. In that coun-
try botany is taught in the schools, and the habitation
of her excellent children presents a heart cheering pic-
ture of domestic felicity, combining the piety of her
divines with the patriotism of her undaunted heroes.
Their piety and their patriotism both flow from the
-ame source, for while they examine the productions
of their country, they become attached to its soil, and
while they contemplate the works of their Maker, they
inspire the glowing spirit of devotion.

Botany deserves our highest regard as the source of
mental improvement. Nothing so powerfully attracts
the notice of the young observer, as the various, the
gay, though fleeting beauty of flowers : yet these inter-

ADVANTAGES. 19

esting objects, like the characters of Algebra, serve to
produce an accuracy of discrimination, which is the
foundation of correct taste, the essence of sound judg-
ment, and the object of every judicious system of edu-
cation. And an intimacy with natural objects serves to
cherish those finer feelings, which give delicacy to
taste, and brilliancy to fancy, feelings which are often
buried amidst the rubbish of severer sciences. On this
account it is peculiarly suited to the culture of the fe-
male mind. There we look for the glow of fancy,
sprightliness of thought, correctness and delicacy of
taste, and there, if properly cultivated, we are sure to
find them.

Such are the benefits which may be derived from the
culture of botanical science. It relieves from the
weariness of an idle, the fatigue of a busy, and the
troubles of a contentious world. Its pleasures pure,
rational, and lasting, are meted out with a liberal hand,
neither stained by passion nor deformed by guilt. —
Pure, for they flow from the contemplation of sinless ob-
jects, monuments of goodness and power, whose perfec-
tions in the the language of the Lyric Bard, perpetually

"Offer notes divine,

To our Creator's praise."

They are also abundant. He must be rich to whom
the world pays tribute, rich indeed if that tribute be
happiness. Such is the wealth of the Botanist, and
there is no field so barren but it yields fruits for him,
no plant so contemptible but he views it with pleasure.
He finds animation and intelligence wherever he goes,
new charms in every object, and new beauties in every
scene. Earth teems with gladness, and in the solitude
of the wood he finds interesting companions, untarnish-
ed by the rude touch, unknown to the vulgar eye.

20 INTRODUCTION.

Called to visit distant lands, familiar objects like the
companions of his childhood greet his arrival on the
foreign shore, where new scenes introduce new pleas-
ures, and give to the fatigue of his journey the fascina-
ting form of amusement. Animated by the spirit of
'Linnaeus he climbs the highest mountains with alacrity,
with glowing zeal penetrates the untrodden forest, and
returns with cheerfulness to his homr> ; but his journey
is not yet ended, for he has there collected materials
whioh will yield him pleasure and employment, while
the cold blast of winter is whistling round his dwelling.

Thus we shall find, whatever be our situations and
pursuits, whatever be the trials and the pleasures that
await us, that natural history, and especially our own
favourite science, multiplies the sources of innocent en-
joyment, extends our bounds of usefulness, and enables
us to encounter the storms of life with fortitude and
success.

These are not the visionary speculations of youth
and inexperience, for experience and wisdom have uni-
ted their testimony in favour of Botanical pursuits.
" The study of Natural History has been for many years
the occupation of my leisure moments, and it is a mer-
ited tribute to say that it has lightened for me many a
heavy, and smoothed many a rugged hour ; that beguil-
ed by its charms, I have found no road rough or diffi-
cult, no journey tedious, no country desolate or bar-
ren. In solitude never solitary, in a desert never
without employment, I have found it a relief from the
languor of idleness, the pressure of business, and the
unavoidable calamities of life."

The author of our Southern Flora has here spoken
the language of every lover of natural science, and his
pleasures are within the reach 0/ every individual in

ADVANTAGES. 21

society. And there is not an individual who will not
find them uniformly connected with some practical ad-
vantage. Is he a disciple of Hume ? let him forsake
the wretched dogmas of his master, turn from the soph-
istries of reason, the cold and cheerless realms of infi-
delity, to contemplate the works of his God ; and he
will be compelled to acknowledge it was truly said, the
Botanist cannot be an Atheist. Is he a minister of the
Gospel? the Bible is his book, the volume of nature
its best appendix. Both proceed from the same source,
and we are required by the same authority to search the
scriptures, and to consider the liljies of the field. Is
he a physician ? I need only remind him of the language
of the beloved Rush, to arouse his attention to the veg-
etables of his country. Is he pursuing the pleasures
of youth ? how many of our amusements at that inter-
esting period of life have an intimate connexion with
natural objects, and when those objects are consecra-
ted by science and friendship, the fields become more
verdant, the flower garden more inviting, and every
scene more charming.

If such be its happy influence on youth, what may
we not expect when old age has folded us in his man-
tle. In the evening of life, when the horizon of friend-
ship is illumined by here and there a solitary star, mem-
ory shall invite us to scenes of past enjoyment, where
every flower will excite the recollection of some hap-
py event, or reflect the image of some absent friend,
absent perhaps in the regions of immortality, contem-
plating the moie splendid works of the same Almighty

hand.

The object of this work is to present a compendious

view of the science which is recommended by such

powerful examples and by its own intrinsic worth. It

£2 THE OBJECT OF THIS WORK.

will involve the consideration of the life, growth, tex-
ture and secretions of plants. It will invoke an account
of the different organs whose presence is required in
the constitution of an individual plant. It will involve
a particular examination of those organs which are ne-
cessary for the perpetuity of the race : and lastly, it
will present an explanation of those systems, which are
to be our guide in studying the plants which meet our
view, and in the investigation of their natural affinities.

COMPENDIUM

BOTANY

CHAPTER I.
VEGETABLE LIFE

AND

DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

Natural History is the name of the science which
examines and developes the nature, properties, and mu-
tual relations of natural objects, comprehending the
Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, under the
three divisions of Mineralogy, Botany, and Zoology.

Minerals are readily distinguished, being destitute
of organization and life, subject only to chemical and
mechanical laws. But the other kingdoms of nature
are so intimately blended, possessing properties which
like the colours of the rainbow emerge into each other,
that many have attempted to define their respective
limits without success. They are both organised, and
equally under the controul of a living principle, whose
&*^laws, the greatest efforts of human ingenuity have not
been able to expound. This principle of life, it is
said, consists in a power to resist putrefaction, and to
a certain extent to maintain a temperature different
from that of surrounding bodies. It is obvious that
this definition is alike applicable to animals and plants.
Both possess the power to resist chemical agency, both
preserve their own temperature, which is sometime*
higher and sometimes lower, than that of the surround-

9A VEGETABLE LIFE.

ing atmosphere. It is needless to mention that the
temperature of animals is commonly greater, though it
is equally true that it is sometimes less than that of the
air they inspire. Plants though in an inferior degree
possess the properties which distinguish them from in-
animate matter. He who has escaped from the almost
intolerable heat of pared streets, knows how much the
green and living grass, can contribute to his comfort.

Near a volcano in the island of Tanna, the surface
of the earth which is but 10 degrees below that of boil-
ing water, is decorated with leaves and flowers com-
paratively cool ; and the roots of the Chaste tree were
discovered by Sonnerat, receiving nourishment from a
rivulet which was nearly as warm. Yet the source
from which it derived its nourishment, had little or no
effect on the temperature of the plant. Under differ-
ent circumstances, especially during the impregnation
of their flowers, plants possess the property of genera-
ting heat. And from the simple elements which are
absorbed by their roots, they form combinations which
transcend, if they do not subvert, the established laws
of chemical action. Thus by a process which we can
neither imitate nor explain, they convert the insipid
fluid which they derive from the earth, into substances,
as distinguished for their various yet peculiar qualities,
as for the important uses to which they are subservi-
ent.

Darwin, whose exuberant genius too often soared
above the field of sober observation, has attributed to
vegetables a sensibility capable of enjoyment and suf-
fering, with the power of volition, subject to the pas-
sion of love and the necessity of sleep.

The irritability of vegetables, en which depends the
absorption and circulation of their fluids, was ingenious-

IRRITABILITY. ZO

ly demonstrated by an experiment of Von Uslar. He
destroyed the life of a plant by electricity, without af-
fecting its organization, after which an incision of its
branches was not followed by an effusion of fluids,
though previous to the experiment it bled abundantly.
It may also be exhibited by two transverse sections of a
twig, from each extremity of which a fluid may be ob-
served to escape.

Sensibility differs from the preceding property of
vegetable life, by its supposed association with pleas-
ure and pain. A little attention to this subject will
convince us, that plants distinguish heat from cold,
darkness from light, and the other sensible properties
of the atmosphere which promote, from those which
retard vegetation. Thus when plants are placed by
our windows, we see them present the upper surface
of their leaves to the light ; and when their position is
reversed, a new arrangement of the leaves takes place,
by which the same surface is again exposed to the rays
of the sun. Some flowers which shine with distinguish-
ing lustre in the morning, shrink from the dazzling
brightness of a noon day sun ; some court his meridian
glory, while others at the approach of darkness, expand
their tender blossoms, loading with perfume the breez-
es of evening. Thus too, we find the leaves of some
plants closing around their tender blossoms, to protect
them from the injurious effects of cold and moisture ,
and others exquisitely sensible to the touch of extrane-
ous bodies. The flowers of the Barberry, a shrub
which grows abundantly in every section of the United
States, evince a susceptibility of impression from exter-
nal objects, at once curious and surprising. The
leaves of the Sensitive, so often the innocent source of
4

MOTION AND HABIT.

interest and amusement, exhibit the same phenomena
in a still more remarkable degree.

Dr. Smith, to whom I shall frequently have occasion
to refer, and from whom on a subject like this it is gen-
erally unsafe to differ, thinks that vegetables possess
*ome degree of sensation, and consequently an inferior
degree of happiness. He says that such a supposition,
accords with all the best ideas we can form of the
Divine Creator, nor could the consequent uneasiness
which plants must suffer, no doubt in a very inferior
degree from the depredations of animals, bear any
comparison with their enjoyment on the whole.
Whatever opinions we adopt on this subject, until our
knowledge is more extended, sensibility must not be
regarded as the peculiar attribute of either kingdom.

Some have attempted to draw the line of distinction,
by limiting to animals the power of locomotion ; but
they forget that while the corals are attached to the
rocks of the ocean, the fact are seen to swim on its
wateis.

Plants like men are much under the power of habit.
The following examples are sufficient to evince the ex-
tent of this power. Several plants which are natives
of warm climates where their existence is prolonged for
several successive years, have been removed to less
temperate regions. They are unable to endure the
cold of their new situations, and consequently must
change their habits of growth ere they can be cultivated
with success. To secure this object some of them
pass through the successive stages of their existence
with astonishing velocity, and accomplish in a single
summer what they had been accustomed to require
years to perform. Our garden Nasturtion was origin-
ally a shrub which flourishes without cultivation on

HABIT. 27

the banks ofthe Peruvian streams ; yet, transferred to this
country, it has become an annual plant, which arrives
at maturity in a few short months. The habits of other
tender plants are with more difficulty subdued, and they
to be successfully cultivated must be gradually transfer-
red from their native soil. In the latter case the habit
and the power they acquire to accommodate themselves
to their new situation, overcome' the natural impedi-
ments to their growth, which under different circum-
stances would have been irresistible. Therefore it is,
that plants whose seeds were ripened in northern lat-
itudes, are less liable to injury from frost, than they
would have been if their seeds had been brought from
a temperate climate. By thus gradually accustoming
it to a diminution of temperature, Rice was at one time
cultivated with advantage in New Jersey, though with-
out these precautions it rarely comes to maturity even
in Virginia.* - The habits of the Indian corn aided by
climate and culture have suffered still more remarka-
ble changes. After having been for several years rais-
ed in Canada it arrives at perfection in a few weeks,
and on that account is employed by us as an early corn,
But that which has been repeatedly cultivated in Vir-
ginia will not ripen even in New-England, yet origin-
ally the small early Canadian, and the luxuriant Virginia
corn were the same, both in habit and in every other
known property. They probably originated from the
same identical seed. Numerous other examples might
be mentioned, but enough has been done to justify the
conclusion, that vegetables as well as animals are under
the dominion of habit.
Yet some there are, who deny the existence of vege

* Barton's Medical and Physical Journal.

-O CRITERION OF M1RBEL.

table life, who attribute the phenomena of which we
have been speaking to a power which the artist possess-
es, to the agency of chemical and mechanical causes.
We have seen that they possess most of the properties
which distinguish living from inanimate matter, and
that like animals they owe their existence to a power
which we can neither comprehend nor explain.

This analogy might be traced still further, and we
at last should be obliged to resort to a criterion which
for wantof a better has of late been defended with great
ingenuity by Mirbel, and adopted by the most eminent
naturalists of Europe. The food of animals is found to
consist of organized materials, whose peculiar proper-
ties were produced by the action of life. With the
single exception of salt, which is used as a condiment
and not as food, 1 believe this is a rule of universal ap-
plication, and that there is not an article of food which
has not been the tenement of life. Vegetables on the
other hand are nourished by inorganic materials, by
earth, by air, and by water. They constitute the great
manufactory of life, in which the dead elements of cre-
ation are converted into living solids, capable of sus-
taining the lives of animals. In this respect the former
possess a power denied to the latter, and if they could
speak, they would tell us how entirely, how immedi-
ately we are dependent on them for existence. Is not
then the position tenable, that life is the same wherev-
er it is found, and that it derives its peculiar modifica-
tions from the form and structure of the tenements
which it inhabits ? Even in the same body it assumes
a great multiplicity of forms, and enables the eye to
see, the ear to hear, and the tongue to taste and tell,
while other organs equally important and equally alive
are almost denied the power of sensation.

DEFINITION OF PLANTS.

To a person accustomed to contemplate only the
higher orders of plants and animals, it will appear easy
to draw the line of distinction and to point out the char-
acteristics of each. To him the criterion of Mirbel
will appear as hypothetical as it is really just, and he
will never find it necessary to resort to such an expe-
dient, to determine whether he is examining the organi-
sed remains of animal or vegetable life. But when he
descends to the inspection of those inferior orders of
beings, in which simplicity of organization is combined
with powers of life almost extinguished, he then finds
it difficult to determine to which kingdom, those or-
gans and that life belong.

In such cases the resources of modern chemistry
have furnished us with an additional guide. The pe-
culiar phosphoric odour exhaled during the combustion
of animal substances, indicating the presence of nitro*
gen, has been rarely detected during the decomposi-
tion of vegetables, and we may safely infer the animal
nature of those organs by whose combustion it is pro-
duced. Plants then are organized and living beings,
springing from seeds or gems, and nourished by inor-
ganic substances which they absorb from the atmos-
phere and the earth. Medicine reveals their healing
efficacy— chemistry detects the elements of which they
are composed, and agriculture and gardening teach
how they may be cultivated with the greatest advan-
tage.

But Botany assumes a more elevated station, and
points out to her enquiring followers the great variety
of their external forms, the curious arrangement which
their internal structure presents, their habits, their
history, their mutual relations and natural affinities.
4*

CHAPTER II.

GERMINATION.

The living principle whose character can be traced
only in its operations, sometimes remains inactive for
years. Such at least is its situation while enclosed in
the seed, where it continues inert till aroused by the
application of external agents, or wasted by the des-
troying agency of time. The former process is term-
ed germination, and it is the source of all that variety
and beauty, which plants exhibit, to charm the eye and
make glad the heart of man.

Reserving for a future chapter a more minute ac-
count of the seed, it will be sufficient at this time to ob-
serve, that its coats enclose an embryo or corcle destin-
ed to become a living plant, usually lying betwixt two
lateral lobes or cotyledons, and frequently accompani-
ed by a farinaceous substance denominated the albumen.
The latter, which exists abundantly in most kinds of
grain, is designed entirely for the sustenance of the
young plant, and the lobes, exhibiting more evident
traces of organization are chiefly subservient to the
same end. In most cases however during germination,
they grow out of the earth, assuming the appearance
of leaves, but readily distinguished from those of a sub-
sequent growth by their peculiar shape, clothing and
duration. In others, they remain beneath the surface
of the earth, or are elevated on the side of the young

PHENOMENA. 31

stalk, but in the latter case, they never assume a leaf-
like appearance,*

The embryo, to which these parts are merely ac-
cessory, consists of two portions, one named the ros-
tel and becoming the root, while the other, termed
plumelet, ascends above the surface, to form the stem
and the herbage.

If we observe the order of these changes it will be
found that the seed first swells from the absorption of
moisture ; its coats burst and decay, the rostel being
enlarged by the sustenance which it receives from the
lobes, descends and becomes attached to the ground ;
after which the cotyledons are elevated above the sur-
face, and at last the plumelet appears emanating from
the base of the seminal leaves.

But a better idea of these successive changes may
be derived from the following examples, the former
being seeds with two cotyledons and the latier with
one which remained beneath the earth's surface.

At a season favourable to vegetation, Malpighi plant-
ed some seeds of the Gourd, and the following were his
observations respecting the developement of the young
plants.

At the end of the first day, the seeds were consider
ably enlarged — their coats were moist — a small orifice
was discernible at their summit, through which the
fluids seemed to have been absorbed, and the cotyle-
dons, had already begun to assume the appearance of
seminal leaves. At the end of the second day, the em-

* Wildenow describes three kinds of germination peculiar to
perfect plants ; in the first the cotyledons, usually two in
number, are converted into seminal leaves as in radish ; in the
second they remain beneath the surface as in lilies and grasses ;
and in the third, they are elevated on a young stalk, having the
plumelet at their side as in some species of rush gra«9.

32 GERMINATION.

bryo was somewhat enlarged, the traces of its organiza-
tion were more evident, and its radicle was distinctly
visible. At the end of the third day, the exterior mem-
braneshad become brown, the rostel had burst through
it, and the plumelet had begun to expand. At the end of
the fourth day, the young plant had considerably en-
larged, and the nerves of the seminal leaves which
were still enclosed by the coats of the seed, had be-
come very perceptible. At the end of the ninth day
the plant had wholly escaped from the seed, though
the plumelet was still enveloped in the seminal leaves,
yellowish in its appearance but generally assuming a
tinge of green. At length its extrication was effected
and the rostel converted into a root ; the rudiments of
a stem developed ; and on the twentieth day the plant
was complete.

The other example will serve to illustrate the
growth of seeds with one cotyledon. Some Rye was
planted in good soil, and at the end of the second hour
its radicle was discernible. At the end of twenty four
hours the embryo had escaped from its integuments.
On the second day the fibres of the root had augmented
but the leaves had not appeared. On the fourth day
the first leaf began to appear above ground, at which
time its colour was red. On the fifth day it had grown
to the length of an inch, and its colour was now green,
and on the sixth day the second leaf had appeared.*

These effects are produced by the united influence
of air, water and heat.

Homberg, a distinguished philosopher of Europe,
planted a variety of seeds under the exhausted receiver
of an air pump ; they rarely germinated, and in this

* Keith.

CAUSES.

situation never continued to grow. The experiments
of Homberg have been repeated with great fidelity by
others, who infer that in the cases of germination men-
tioned by him the vacuum must have been very in-
complete. Seeds which have remained for years
unchanged buried deep in the earth, are often seen to
germinate when raised within the influence of the at-
mosphere ; and the chesnut and acorn are found to
grow better on the surface of the earth than when
buried beneath it. Achard proved that seeds grow
more luxuriantly in compressed than in rarefied air,
and the successors of the illustrious Scheele, have by
a series of ingenious experiments ascertained that it is
the oxygen of the atmosphere which excites their ger-
mination.

Water and heat are also agents of primary impor-
tance. The arid sands of Africa are scarcely embel-
lished by a single plant, and the cold of our winter
most effectually prevents the germination of the seeds
which are scattered over the earth ; but let the rain
descend and it will cause the desert to blossom as the
rose, and when spring returns diffusing cheerfulness
and warmth, it will revive the energies which slumber
within the coats of the seed.

The moisture which causes the first enlargement of
the seed is chiefly absorbed through the scar (a small
point by which it was originally connected with the
fruit, and easily discernible on the surface of most
seerls) but it is also imbibed by the integuments, for
the entire exclusion of water from the scar, retards but
does not arrest the process of germination. In either
case the water which is absorbed passes through the
vessels of the cotyledons to the rostel of the infant plant,
which exhibits the first indications of vitality. Hence

34 GERMINATION.

we learn how these vessels are tinged when the germi-
nating seed is placed in a coloured fluid, and why the
young plant inevitably dies if the cotyledons are pre-
maturely removed.

But the fluids thus imbibed by the seed do not reach
its embryo unchanged. They dissolve the farina of the
albumen or lobes, a quantity of carbonic acid gas is
disengaged, and a fermentation is thus begun which ter-
minates only in the evolution of the new plant, or in
the destruction of its vitality. If no oxygen gas be
present, the latter consequence ensues, for whether it
stimulates the vital principle, supplies the embryo with
food, or converts the farina of the cotyledons into a
mild and nutritive substance resembling sugar, whatev-
er be its mode of operation, the importance of this
agent, nay its necessity to germination has been most
fully established.

By removing even a minute portion of its carbon, the
farina of seeds is converted into sugar, and from the
very luminous experiments of the younger Saussure it
has been reasonably inferred that oxygen promotes the
germination of seeds only as it combines with their car-
bon, and enables it to escape. Thus by a process near-
ly allied to that of malting, the infant plant is supplied
with food, and it is probable that in the former as well
as in the latter case, a small portion of heat is disengag-
ed. "I conceive" says Dr. Smith, " the evolution of
this heat may powerfully further the progress of vege-
tation, by stimulating the vital principle of the embryo,
till its leaves unfold and assume their functions." —
Whether this conceit be true or not, it is certain that
germination may be much advanced by the application
of artificial heat, and seeds have in this way been made
to vegetate in three hours, which under ordinary ch

CAUSES. 35

cumstances, require twelve. Adanson found that many
seeds which were transported from Paris to Senegal
germinated three days earlier than in their native coun-
try. And wherever it is desirable to obtain the earli-
est productions of the season, seeds ripened in a north-
ern climate should be selected, for though less luxuri-
ant, plants which are thus obtained, reach maturity with
a less degree of heat. Since the agency of oxygen be-
came known, it has been ascertained that it may be
employed to excite the vegetative power of seeds,
which under common circumstances refuse to grow.
At least those substances which yield it with facility and
in abundance, have been employed with the greatest
success to produce this very desirable effect. One of
the most effectual of these is, the chlorine of modern
chemistry. Humboldt,* to whom we are indebted for
this discovery, planted some Cress seeds in sand, and
moistened some of them with pure water, and others
with water impregnated with chlorine ; the latter vege-
tated in six, the others in thirty-six hours. Jacquin
employed the same agent to excite the action of seeds
which he had received from the cape of Good Hope,
and though every other effort had proved ineffectual,
this was crowned with the most flattering success.

It has been a question whether light promotes or re-
tards germination. However important it may be to
the luxuriance of the growing plant, I am inclined t®
believe that its influence on the germinating seed is
comparatively trifling. It seems to have been the de-
sign of nature, that this operation should be performed
in the bosom of the earth, secluded from the light of

* Humboldt mixed about four parts water with two of manga-
nese and one of common muriatic acid, and placed the seeds in
this mixture until the rostel was evolved.

36 GERMINATION.

day ; and observation has taught us, that in some instan-
ces, it proceeds most rapidly in the dark.

The following table will serve to shew how various
are the periods requisite for the germination of differ-
ent seeds, some requiring a greater degree of heat, and
some more moisture than others, and some also requir-
ing a longer exposure to all the exciting causes of ger-
mination.

days days

Wheat and Millet require 1 Purslain 9

Spinage, Beans, Mustard 3 Cabbage 10

Lettuce, Anise 4 Hyssop 30

Melon, Cucumber, Cress seed 5 Parsley, 40 or 50

Radish, Beet 6 Almond, Chesnut,* Peach 1 year

Barley 7 Rose, Hawthorn, Filbert 2y'rs
Orach 8

No seeds vegetate so rapidly as those of the grasses,
and none require a longer period than those of the Rose
and others of the same natural order.

But from what has previously been said, we must
expect to see a variation of these periods in conse-
quence of the more or less favourable situations in
which the seeds are planted.

Philosophers have in vain attempted to determine
why plants invariably assume an erect position, why as
the rostel descends towards the centre of the earth,
the plumelet always rises above its surface. Art may
force a young shrub to the horizon but its branches will
still ascend as if they spurned a contact with the earth
which supports them ; and if a germinating seed be
made very gradually to revolve, the spiral form of its
rostel will show that it has uniformly aimed to descend.
Delahire supposed that plants become erect in conse-
quence of the volatile nature of their fluids, the expla-
nation of Mr. Knight rests upon mechanical principles,

PRESERVATION OF LIFE IN SEED. 3 7

while others have imputed it to the same inherent per-
ceptive intelligence which leads the duckling to the wa-
ter, and the young partridge to the wood. Mr. Knight
found that if seeds be made to germinate on a rapidly
revolving wheel, their plumelets converge towards its
axis, while the radicles proceed in an opposite direc-
tion, and therefore, he concludes that the same princi-
ple which causes a heavy body to fall when unsupport-
ed, gives to the rostel its descending direction. The
subject however is still involved in obscurity, for it
seems paradoxical to say, that the Oak towers above
the horizon in consequence of the same gravity, by
which, when decayed it is precipitated to the ground.

The germination of the Misletoe is very different
from the process which has here been described.
Destined to live upon the resources of other vegetables,
its rostel penetrates their bark, and according to the
observations of Duhamel, its seed will vegetate even
when its cotyledons have been removed. Nor does
its rostel exhibit that invincible tendency downwards,
which has been noticed among the phenomena of ordi-
nary generation, but its young stem and young roots
grow in every direction, apparently with the same fa-
cility.

"The preservation of the vital principle in seeds, is
one of those wonders of Nature which pass unregard-
ed from being every day under our notice. Some
lose their vegetative power by being kept out of the
ground ever so little a while after they are ripe, and in
order to succeed, must sow themselves in their own
way and at their own time. Others may be sent round
the world, through every vicissitude of climate, or bu-

GERMINATION.

lied for ages deep in the ground, till favourable cir-
cumstances cause them to vegetate."*

The forester who removes from his plains the Pines
with which perhaps for ages the}' have been occupied.
is surprised soon after, to behold them covered with
the barren oak, for he knows not, where or how the
germs of such a multitude of shrubs have been preserv-
ed. And where other vegetables have been burnt, he
sees the Fire weed, which Phoenix-like, springs up and
appears to thrive only on the ashes of the dead. The
earth which is thrown from cellars and wells is soon
covered with thistles and other plants, whose seeds
have been deposited in such a situation as to prevent
theirgrowth-. during aperiod which no man can estimate.

These and other examples of the kind, have led to
the popular, though erroneous belief, that the vegeta-
bles which thus appear, derive their existence from
the earth, and not from the germination of seeds.

" Great degrees of heat, short of boiling, do not im-
pair the vegetative power of seeds, nor do we know
any degree of cold that has such an effect. Those
who convey seeds from distant countries should be in-
structed to keep them dry ; for if they receive any
damp sufficient to cause an attempt at vegetation, they
necessarily die, because the process cannot as they are
situated go on. If therefore they are not exposed to
so great an artificial heat as might change the nature of
their oily juices, they can scarcely according to the ex-
perience of Mr. Salisbury, be kept in too warm a place.
By the preservation of many seeds so long under ground
it seems that long continued moisture is not in itself fa-
tal to their living powers, neither does it cause their
premature germination unless accompanied with some
action of the air. 55 *

* Smith.

CHAPTER III.

VEGETATION.

As soon as it has escaped from the integuments of
the seed, the young plant becomes capable of abstrac-
ting from the atmosphere and the earth, the nutriment
necessary to its complete developement ; and our next
enquiry relates to the food which it absorbs, and to the
agents by which its growth is affected. By the aid of
chemistry the soil and the Atmosphere have been ana-
lyzed, and when we compare the ingredients of which
they are composed, with those which enter into the
composition of vegetables, it will be found, that the lat-
ter do not select the principles which the former con-
tain in the greatest abundance. Carbon, oxygen and
hydrogen, the two last by their union forming water,
constitute the bulk of most plants. Yet it appear?,
that the proportion of these and the other ingredients,
is various in different plants, and hence it is obvious,
that they would not grow with equal luxuriance in the
same soil, sustained by the same food, and exposed (o
the same privations. Hence we learn, why some veg-
etables flourish in clayey, some in flinty earth, while
others thrive better in a calcareous soil than in either
of these : why some are found invariably on the mar-
gin of the sea, while others shun, as the pestilence of
death, the vapours of the " salt sea foam.'' And hence
we learn, why some thrive only in water, others on
the dry and sandy plain, why some grow hixariantly in

4jJ VEGETATION.

the valley, while others bud and bloom only on the
mountain's dreary summit. From water, air and the
soil, plants derive their food ; heat and light enabling
them to convert it to their own use.

1. WATER. — Of the various substances by which
vegetables are nourished, water is perhaps the most
important. It preserves the vigour and freshness of
plants, which droop and wither when deprived of their
necessary supply, and it restores to health the leaf
that fades in consequence of its privation. * " Many
plants will grow, and thrive, and effect the develope-
mentof all their parts, if the root is merely immersed
in water, though not fixed in the soil. Lilies, Hya-
cinths, and a variety of plants with bulbous roots, may
be so reared, and are often to be met with, so vegeta-
ting ; and others will also vegetate, though wholly im-
mersed. Most of the marine plants are of this descrip-
tion. It can scarcely be doubted therefore, that water
serves for the purpose of a vegetable aliment.

But if plants cannot be made to vegetate without wa-
ter ; and if they will vegetate, some, when partly im-
mersed, without the assistance of soil ; and some, even
when totally immersed, so as that no other food seems
to have access to them ; does it not follow that water
is the sole food of plants, the soil being merely the ba-
sis on which they rest, and the receptacle of their
food ? This opinion has had many advocates ; and the
arguments and experiments adduced in support of it,
were at onetime thought to have completely establish-
ed its truth. It was indeed the prevailing opinion of
the seventeenth century, and was embraced by sever-

« This chapter is selected chiefly from the Physiological Bota-
nv of Mr. Koith.

ATMOSPHERE.

41

al succeeding philosophers, that water, by virtue of the
vital energy of the plant, was sufficient to form all the
different substances contained in vegetables.

But more recent experiments have proved that this
opinion is untenable, for it appears that in those cases
in which mere water supplies the wants of vegetation,
its invigorating effects are partially owing to the sub-
stances which it holds in solution. While we maintain,
therefore, that water is not the sole food of plants, and
is not convertible into the whole of the ingredients of
the vegetable substance, even with the aid of the vital
energy; we must at the same time admit that plants,
though vegetating merely in water, do yet augment the
quantity of their carbon. In this situation some plants
thrive, others are feeble, and languish for the want of
more solid nutriment ; and in all cases it is desirable
to know whether the vegetables we cultivate, grow
most luxuriantly in a moist or in a dry soil. The tex-
ture and form of their leaves and roots, and the pecul-
iar situation, in which, when unrestrained by culture,
they are found to delight, will furnish useful hints to
those who are pursuing this enquiry.

2. ATMOSPHERE.— When it was found that wa-
ter is insufficient to constitute the sole food of pL.nts,
recourse was next had to the assistance of the atmos-
pheric air ; and it was believed that the vital energy of
the plant, is at least capable of furnishing all the differ-
ent ingredients of the vegetable substance, by means of
decomposing and combining in different ways, atmos-
pheric air and water. But as this extravagant conjec-
ture is founded on no proof, it is consequently of no
value. It must be confessed, however, that atmospher-
ic air is indispensably necessary to the health and vig-
or of the plant ; as may be seen by looking at the differ-

42 VEGETATION.

ent aspects of plants exposed to a free circulation of
air, and plants deprived of it ; the former are vigorous
and luxuriant ; the latter weak and stunted. It may
be seen also, by means of experiment, even upon a
small scale. If a plant is placed under a glass, to which
no new supply of air has access, it soon begins to lan-
guish, and at length withers and dies ; but particularly,
if it is placed under the exhausted receiver of an air
pump, as might be expected from the failure of the
germination of the seed, in similar circumstances. —
According to the experiments of Saussure, plants of
peas, though completely developed and furnished with
their leaves, died in the space of three days, when put
into the exhausted receiver of an air pu.mp, whether
in the shade or the sun. But even in this situation,
plants with thick and succulent leaves, seem capable of
supporting vegetation, at least if exposed to the sun.
A plant of the Prickly Pear, Cactus opuntia lived more
than a month in this state, without showing any symp-
toms of decay, except that the epidermis seemed dry,
which again recovered its freshness, however, in the
atmospheric air.

But although we admit the great utility of atmospher-
ic air, and even its absolute necessity to the support of
vegetable life, we must not attribute to it more than is
due, and conclude without proof, that air, together with
water, forms the whole of the vegetable aliment And
yet in support of this doctrine, it has been said, that
many plants do evidently effect the developement of
their parts, without the' aid of any other nourishment
beyond that of air, rains, and dews ; and the Mosses
and Lichens, and some other tribes of plants, have been
quoted as affording examples.

It must be admitted no doubt, that plants of slow

VEGETABLE EXTRACT.

growth, and tenacious of life, such as many of the Moss
es, and some of the succulent plants, do indeed effect
the dev elopement of their parts, without the aid of
any other nourishment beyond what they derive from
the atmosphere. But plants of rapid growth, such as
annuals, can never effect that developement, without
the aid of nourishment derived from the soil. Saus-
sure tried the experiment upon Beans, Peas, and cress-
es, by placing them in pure sand, and moistening them
with distilled water. They grew indeed, and some of
thern even flowered, but never produced perfect seeds.
It is plain, therefore, that some essential principle of
nourishment was wan'ing, which is furnished by the
soil ; and that atmospheric air and water, are not the
only principles constituting the food of plants.

3. VEGETABLE EXTRACT.— When it was found
that atmospheric air and water are not, even conjointly
capable of furnishing the whole of the aliment necessary
to the developement of the plant, it was then alledged
that, with the exception of water, all substances con-
stituting a vegetable food must at least be administered
to the plant in a gaseous state. But this also is a con-
jecture unsupported by proof; for even with regard to
such plants as grow upon the barren rock, or in pure
sand, it cannot be said that they receive no nourishment
whatever besides water, except in a gaseous state.
Many of the particles of decayed animal and vegetable
substances, which float in the atmosphere and attach
themselves to the leaves, must be suffered to enter the
plant in solution with the moisture which the leaves im-
bibe ; and so also similar substances contained in the
soil must be supposed to enter it by the root ; but
these substances may certainly contain vegetable nour-
ishment ; and they will perhaps be found to be taken

44 VEGETATION.

up "by the plant in proportion to their degree of solu-
bility in water and to the quantity in which they exist
in the soil. Now one of the most important of these
substances is vegetable extract.

When plants have attained to the maturity of their
species, the principles of decay begin gradually to op-
erate upon them, till they at length die and are con-
verted into the dust from whence they sprang, thus
resembling the animal to whom they afford support.
The substance to which they are finally converted has
been denominated vegetable mould.* And this, as might
be expected, constitutes a considerable proportion of
the soil. The chance then is, that it is again convert-
ed into vegetable nourishment, and again enters the
plant. But it cannot wholly enter the plant because it
is not wholly soluble in water. Fart of it, however, is
soluble and consequently capable of being absorbed by
the root, and that is the substance which has been de-
nominated extract. But the quantity of extract that
may be separated from pure mould formed by nature
upon the surface of the globe is not in general very
considerable. And yet it frequently seems to be more
than sufficient for the purposes of vegetation ; for a
mould containing an excessive quantity was found by
Saussure to be less fertile than that which contains an
ordinary share. But if the quantity of extract must
not be too much, neither must it be too little. Plants
that were put to vegetate in mould deprived of its ex-
tract, as far as repeated decoctions could deprive it,
were found to be much less vigorous and luxuriant
than plants vegetating in mould not deprived of its ex-
tract ; and yet the only perceptible difference between
them is, that the former can imbibe and retain a much
greater quantity of water than the latter.

SAf/TS. 45

From this last experiment, as well as from the great
proportion in which it exists in the living plant, it evi-
dently follows that extract constitutes a vegetable food.

4. SALTS.— Most plants are found by analysis to
contain a certain proportion of salts ; such as nitre and
muriate of soda or common salt. How do they acquire
them ? In the earlier periods of phytological investiga-
tion, when every effect was attributed to the agency of
the vital principle as exerted upon the air and water,
which the plant inhales or absorbs, it was thought that
the salts contained in vegetables are formed in the pro-
cess of vegetation ; but this is also one of those extrav-
agant conjectures of which further research has expos-
ed the absurdity. The salts which have been detected
in vegetables are known to exist in the soil. It is most
likely therefore that the root absorbs them in solution
with the water by which the plant is nourished. For
the fact is already ascertained that plants are capable
of taking up salts by the root, at least when presented
to them in a state of artificial solution ; and if so, there
is then reason to presume that they are also taken up
by the roots of plants vegetating even in their natural
habitations.

But if salts are thus taken up by the root of the veg-
etating plant, does it appear that they are taken up as
food ? Some plants, it must be confessed, are injured
by the application of salts, as is evident by the experi-
ments of Saussure ; but others are as evidently bene-
fitted by it. Clover and Lucern have their growth
much accelerated by the application of gypsum, though
many other plants are not at all influenced by its action.
The Nettle, and Borage will not thrive except in such
«toils as contain nitre : and plants inhabiting the sea

46 VEGETATION.

-:oast, as was observed by Duhamel, will not thrive in a.
^oil that does not contain rauriat of soda.

It has been thought, however, that the salts are not
actually taken up by the root, though converted to
purposes of utility by acting as astringents in stopping
up the orifices of the vessels of the plant, and prevent-
ing the admission of too much water ; but it is to be
recollected that the salts in question are found by anal-
ysis in the very substance of the plant, and must con-
sequently have entered in solution. It has been also
thought that salts are favourable to vegetation only in
proportion as they hasten the putrefaction of vegetable
substances contained in the soil, or attract the humidity
of the atmosphere. But gypsum is not deliquescent,
and if its action consists merely in accelerating putre-
faction, why is its beneficial effect confined but to a
small number of plants ?

Some writers have contended that the salts which are
found in vegetables are merely accidental in their oc-
currence, and not necessary to the health or perfection
of the individual ; because they are found to exist in
but a very small proportion, both in the soil and plant ;
but as there are many species in which some salts are
to be met with constantly and uniformly, at least if they
have vegetated in a soil in which they are found to
thrive, we can scarcely regard their occurrence as
being merely accidental, or as producing no beneficial
effect upon the plant. But the proportion of salts
lodged in the soil, is not so small as is generally be-
lieved ; and it is abundantly sufficient for all the pur-
poses of vegetation. It may even in some cases con-
tain too much ; for it is to be recollected that saline
substances are beneficial to vegetation only when ap-

EARTHS. 47

plied in very small quantities. If they are administer-
ed in great abundance they destroy the plant.

And the argument against their utility that has been
drawn from the small proportion in which they are
found to exist in the plant itself, is altogether inadmis-
sible ; because it is very well known that some particu-
lar ingredient may be essential to the composition of a
body, and yet constitute but a very small proportion of
its mass.

5. EARTHS. — As most plants have been found
by analysis to contain a portion of alkaline or earthy
salts, so most plants have been found to contain also a
portion of earths ; and as the two substances are so
nearly related, and so foreign in their character to
vegetable substances in general, the same enquiry has
consequently been made with regard to their origin.

It seems to have been the opinion of Lampadius that
the earths contained in plants are merely the effect
of vegetation, and altogether independent of the soil in
which they grow ; and extravagant as the opinion is, it
has been made to assume the semblance of resting .upon
experiment. Saussure has exposed the absurdity of
this opinion, and the fallacy of the experiments which
led to its adoption ; and it is at present more generally
believed that the earths are absorbed with the water in
which they are dissolved.

It is probable, however, that plants are not indebted
merely to the soil for the earthy particles which they
contain. They may acquire them partly from the at-
mosphere. Margray has shown that rain water contains
silica in the proportion of a grain to a pound ; which,
if it should not reach the root, may possibly be absorb-
ed along with the water that adheres to the leaves.

But although the earths are thus to be regarded as

48 VEGETATION.

constituting a small proportion of vegetable food, they
are not of themselves sufficient to support the plant,
even with the assistance of water. Giobert mixed to-
gether the different earths in such proportions as are
generally to be met with in fertile soils, and moistened
them with water. Several different grains were then
sown in this artificial soil, which germinated indeed,
but did not thrive ; and perished when the nourish-
ment of the cotyledons was exhausted. It is plain,
therefore, that the earths, though beneficial to the
growth of some vegetables, and perhaps necessary to
the health of others, are by no means capable of afford-
ing any considerable degree of nourishment to the
plant.

6. MANURES. — As the object of the preceding pa-
ges, has been that of exhibiting a brief view of the dif-
ferent species of vegetable food, whether it be regard-
ed as derived from the soil or the atmosphere ; so our
next object will be to show how the food necessary to
the support of the vegetating plant may be supplied
when- defective, or restored when exhausted. But
this unavoidably involves the subject of manures, or
artificial preparations of vegetable food, so important
to the advancement of agriculture, and consequent in-
terest of mankind.

With regard to the food of plants derived from the
atmosphere, the supply is pretty regular, for the pro-
portion of its elements is not found to vary on any part
of the surface of the globe, and if human aid were even
wanted, it does not appear that it could be of much
avail. But this is by no means the case with regard to
soils, which are less regular in their composition, and
at the same time, more within the reach of human
management. On this subject however, we can only

MANURES. 4"

refer to those practices which have been pursued with
advantage, both in this country and in Europe. If the
soil be wet or marshy, it is drained and burned ; if ex
hausted from the repeated culture of any vegetable.
the crop is changed ; if still unproductive the earth i?
plowed and suffered to repose. If any one asks how
the fertility of a soil is restored by these means, it will
be sufficient for the object of this work to reply that.
in the case of draining, the amelioration is effected by
means of its carrying off all such superfluous moisture as
may be lodged in the soil, which is well known to be
prejudicial to plants not naturally aquatics, as well a-
by rendering the soil more firm and compact. In the
case of burning, the amelioration is effected by means
of the decomposition of the vegetable substances con-
tained in the turf, and subjected to the action of fire,
which disperses part also of the superfluous moisture,
but leaves a residue of ashes favourable to future vege-
tation. In the case of the rotation of crops, the fertility
is not so much restored as more completely developed
and brought into action ; because the soil, though ex-
hausted for one species of grain, is yet found to be
sufficiently fertile for another, the food necessary to
each being different or required in less abundance.

In the case of the repose of the soil, the restored
fertility may be owing to the decay of vegetable sub-
stances that are not now carried off in the annual crop,
but left to augment the proportion of vegetable mould ;
or to the accumulation of fertilizing particles conveyed
to the soil by rains ; or to the continued abstraction of
oxygen from the atmosphere.

In the case of fallows, it is owing undoubtedly to the
action of the atmospheric air upon the soil, whether in

•50 VEGETATION.

rendering it more friable, or in hastening the putrefac-
tion of noxious plants ; or, it is owing to the abstrac-
tion and accumulation of oxygen. And in the case of
plowing and trenching, it is owing to the increased fa-
cility with which the roots can penetrate to a proper
depth.

But it often happens, that the soil can no longer be
ameliorated by any of the foregoing means, and in this
case, there must be a direct and actual application made
to it, of such substances as are fitted to restore its fer-
tility. And hence the indispensable necessity of ma-
nures, which consist chiefly of animal and vegetable
remains, that are buried and finally decomposed in the
soil, from which they are afterwards absorbed by the
root of the plant, in a state of solution."

7. HEAT. — Besides the qualities of the earth, there
are other agents, which maintain an unbounded influ-
ence over the vegetation of plants. One of these is
heat, and without it no plants have been made to grow,
though some require a greater degree of it than others.
They all require sufficient while vegetating, to pre-
vent the congelation of their fluids, and the tempera-
ture at which this takes place, their freezing point de-
termines the extent of their power to resist the opera-
tion of cold. The vital energy of equinoctial plants, is
not calculated to resist its agency, and therefore they
cannot endure the temperature of freezing water.

They require to be protected during the winter,
and if originally brought from the southern hemisphere,
they ought to be exposed to a good degree of artificial
heat, or they lose their native beauty and fragrance.
But the vegetables of Polar regions possess an aston-
ishing power of resisting the operation of cold, which
enables them to brave the inclemency of every season.

LIGHT. 51

and to extend the empire of their existence beyond the
li-nits of perpetual snow. They are furnished with
buds, which guard the tender leaves and flowers from
injury, till the period of their evolution arrives, after
which their power of self preservation is lost, and they
are injured by the cold which they are no longer pre-
pared to resist.

8. LIGHT.— Another agent is light ; without which,
plants may be made to grow, but no longer exhibit the
verdure, the texture, or any of the properties of health.
Hereafter we shall probably learn, that while the at-
mosphere is contaminated by the respiration of ani-
mals, its purity is restored by the vegetation of plants.
But secluded from the light, vegetables are no longer
capable of converting a portion of the fixed air to their
own use, or of supplying the atmosphere with oxygen,
on which its importance to animal life, chiefly, if not
entirely depends. By the action of light, the carbon
of the fixed air is interwoven with the very texture of
the plant, whereby it acquires a greater degree of firm-
ness, and becomes more valuable in the arts. Through
its agency, the aromatic and essential secretions are
formed, and hence we find them existing in perfection,
only in countries which are favoured with the perpet-
ual light of summer, or on elevated mountains, where
the ra} r s of light meet with no obstruction. There we
find the Nutmeg, the Clove, the Cinnamon and the Pe-
ruvian barks, all designed to increase the comforts, or
diminish the sufferings of humanity ; and all owing
their chief excellencies to the light of the sun.

When prepared to investigate the geographical dis-
tribution of the vegetable kingdom, we shall learn the
powerful effects of these united causes. Feeble and ex-
hausted in Polar regions, vegetation acquires strength

it VEGETATION.

as we approach towards the equator ; where its pow
ers can be estimated, only by the magnificence of its
productions. There the light of the sun is more vivid,
Its heat more permanent and intense, while the soil
is equally fertile, and the atmosphere equally pure.

In southern Georgia, an island of the frozen ocean,,
only two plants have been discovered, and but thirty
have been found to grow without cultivation, in the
more temperate climate of Spitzberg. How contemp-
r ible are these productions, when compared with those
of our own climate, or the still more fertile fields of
Madagascar ! But deprive Madagascar of its heat, and
it becomes a second Greenland. Exclude the light of
the sun, and like the dark caverns of the earth, it will
produce only a few plants, and those of a sickly hue.
Destitute of rain, it will be like the deserts of Africa,
and unsupplied with air, it will exhibit no vestige of
life. We must therefore expect, as we recede from
the equator, to meet with a constant succession of new
plants, but as we advance, we shall find them less nu-
merous snd perhaps of inferior beauty and size. And
as we ascend above the surface of the ocean, we must
be prepared for asimilar, though more rapid succession.
This was long ago established by the observations of
Tournefort, and it has more recently been verified, by
the researches of Humboldt and Decandolle ; but an
account of their observations must be reserved for a
subsequent chapter.

CHAPTER IV.

TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES.

When we reflect upon the vast variety of produc-
tions which the analysis of vegetables discloses to our
view, and that even the same plant presents substances
essentially different from each other ; it must be obvi-
ous that for each of these substances there is an appro
priate system of vessels. And when we examine the
transverse section of a woody stem, it presents sever-
al varieties of structure, distinguished from each other
by colour-taste— density and strength, embracing all the
different arrangements which are to be found in the grow-
ing plant, and some of them in their most perfect form.
It presents externally the BARK, composed of Epider-
mis — Cellular Integument and Cortical Layers ; it pre-
sents the WOOD, exhibiting, especially in old trees,
two distinct portions, which are readily distinguished
by their peculiar density and colour ; and in the cen-
tre of these it presents the PITH ; very abundant in
young shoots, but gradually disappearing with age.

This is the arrangement which we find, and this we
shall adopt, in the prosecution of our enquiries respec-
ting the texture of vegetables.

SECTION 1.
EPIDERMIS.

The exterior covering by which every part of a liv-
ing plant is surrounded, is named itsCuticle or epidermis,
6 *

54 TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES.

The various examples which it exhibits, some distin-
guished for their delicacy and others for their singular
beauty, invite to an examination which the importance
of the organ demands.

" In the root and trunk, it is coarse and hard, or it
is a crust of considerable thickness, forming a notable
portion of the bark, and assuming some peculiar shade
of colour which it seems to acquire from age ; while
in the leaves, flowers, and tender shoots, it is a fine,
colourless, and transparent film, not thicker than a cob-
web. But its want of colour is discoverable only
when detached ; for, when adherent, it is always ting-
ed with some peculiar shade, which it borrows from the
part immediately beneath it. Hence the green colour
so prevalent in the leaf and tender shoot, which the
epidermis merely transmits, and the beautiful variety
of tints displayed in flowers and fruits. In the perma-
nent parts of woody and perennial plants, the old ep-
idermis often disengages itself spontaneously, as in the
Currant, Birch, and Plane tree, in which it seems to be
undergoing a continual waste and repair ; and in such
plants it is again regenerated, even though destroyed
by accident. But in herbaceous plants, and in the leaf,
flower, and fruit of other plants, it never disengages
itself spontaneously, and is never regenerated if once
destroyed."*

According to the elder Saussure, who studied this
organ chiefly in the leaves and flowers of the Jessa-
mine and Foxglove, it is composed of two layers, the
interior being a net work interspersed with numerous
glands, the other consisting of a fine transparent mem

* Keiih

epidermis, iyo

brane, capable of being partially detached but destitute
of organization.

The glands, noticed by Saussure, are regarded by
Hedvvig as mere apertures, or pores, perforating the
pellicle that forms the epidermis. " They are con-
tained within a peculiar area, which is sometimes round,
sometimes oval, and sometimes rhomboidal. [Figs. 1
and 2 are designed to represent a magnified view of
these areas as exhibited by the garden pink and li-
ly.] They are generally oblong, though' they are of-
ten so much contracted as to change their form. The
areas communicate with one another by means of cer-
tain vessels originating in their circumference, and
forming part of the general net- work which is compos-
ed of two distinct but adherent layers. Finally, they
are regarded as being organs of perspiration, and their
peculiar areas, which consist also of two distinct but
not adherent layers, are regarded as forming recepta-
cles for perspirable matter."*

The magnitude and number of these pores is unques-
tionably various in different plants, and by observing
how soon the branches wither when removed from
their original connexion, we can estimate the aggre-
gate number and size of the orifices, through which
their fluids escape. By observing also how soon the
faded branch revives after it is plunged into water, we
can determine the comparative magnitude and number
of those orifices, through which its fluids are absorbed •
and we shall find that while our aquatic vegetables with-
er in a few moments, owing to the rapid discharge of
their fluids, others are so constructed as to retain their
moisture several days. We shall likewise find that

• Keith.

56 TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES.

some which absorb water with facility, exhale it very
sparingly, a fact, which renders them well adapted to
sustain the privations which they were designed to en-
counter. The Houseleek is a plant of this description,
and therefore we frequently see it flourishing on walls,
where other vegetables would wither and die. The
Aloe and Ice plants, those splendid ornaments of the
sandy desert are other examples, whose cellular tex-
ture is filled with fluids, which the peculiar formation
of their epidermis enables them to absorb and retain.
The epidermis usually appears like a simple mem-
brane, but those of the Paper Birch and Currant, are
composed of several layers which may easily be sepa-
rated from each other, and the number of its epider-
midal coats has acquired for an American shrub, the
popular name of Nine bark.* But there are cases in
which the several layers are obviously so incorpora-
ted as to form in the aggregate only an individual epi-
dermis. This may be exemplified in the rind of an
apple, of which the layers are two in number, the ex-
terior being thin and transparent, the other being more
succulent and tender, and tinged with a peculiar shade,
giving colour to the fruit. In most cases when recent-
ly formed, it is transparent as well as porous, so as to
admit the free access of light and air, while it excludes
every substance which would prove injurious to vege-
tation. Not only does it protect the young tree from
external injury, but it preserves our choicest fruit
from premature decay, and without it the leaf would
lose its verdure, the flower its fragrance, and their
transitory beauty would become still more evanes-
cent.

* Barton's Elements,

EPIDERMIS. 57

To Wheat, to Rye, and to most kinds of grass, the
epidermis is of still greater importance, for at once it
supports their stalks, and secures them from injuries,
to which, without this defence they would have been
continually exposed. The beauty and strength of
those straws which are employed in the manufacture
of bonnets, and the durability of such as are used in the
formation of thatched roofs, may be traced entirely to
their exterior covering. In these, and still more abun-
dantly in the epidermis of the Rattan and Scouring Rush,
Sir Humphry Davy has discovered the existence of
flinty earth, and in some cases the quantity is so great
as to give fire when struck with steel. It is the flint
which enters into its composition that renders the
Rush so noxious to animals, so useful in the arts, and
it is this which makes the ashes of burnt straw one of
the best materials, which can be employed in giving its
finest polish to marble.

The epidermis is sometimes clothed with wool or
down, when it becomes an effectual security against the
extremes of heat and cold. Thus protected, a few
plants linger around the ruins of the volcano, long af-
ter they are deserted by their less fortunate compan-
ions. The young leaf of the American poplar, Popu-
lus granclidentata, affords a fine example of this downy
covering, which disappears whenever the enclosed
texture becomes so firm as no longer to require it for
defence. The wooly covering of the Mullein is more
generally known, and its v^ry close analogy to the fur
of animals, would warrant the inference that they are
designed to answer the same important purposes.

Thus various are the forms of the epidermis, an
organ merely of defence, admirably designed to secure
from harm the tender vessels which it encloses, and to

58 TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES.

form in the language of an interesting writer, " a fine
but essential barrier betwixt life and death." Possess-
ing in a very inferior degree the properties of organi-
zation, and the powers of life, it is frequently the most
durable portion of the vegetable structure, and serves
to enclose the remains of those organ?, for whose de-
fence, when living, it was chiefly designed.

SECTIOxN 2.
CELLULAR INTEGUMENT.

Immediately beneath the epidermis of leaves and
young stems, we find a soft juicy coat which is named
cellular integument. It exists in all herbaceous plants,
occurs in pulpy fruits, and is particularly conspicuous
in the leaves and flowers. In the seed lobes, it is
usually white, in the leaves it is green, while in the
flowers and fruit it assumes almost every variety of
hue.

The organ in question has been examined with pe-
culiar care by Mirbel, and no one else has delineated its
structure with so much perspicuity, and minuteness.
When divided by a transverse or vertical section it
presents an assemblage of hexagonal cells, resembling
those of the honey comb, each side being common to
two cells, and the whole arranged with the most perfect
symmetry. " But if the cells happened to be com-
pressed by any foreign force, the hexagon then assumed
an elongated appearance. The partitions of the cells
were found to be extremely thin and transparent, and
their organization too fine to be distinguished even by
the highest magnifiers. But they were generally per-

CELLULAR INTEGUMENT. 59

forated with holes or pores, forming the medium of
communication between the different cells, and border-
ed with a sort of small and glandular ring. The whole
of the tissue was extremely delicate, but particularly
in the several parts of the flower, where the slightest
touch stained it, and the slightest pressure destroyed it.
It was also speedily destroyed by maceration in water.
If the cells happened to be empty it was transparent
and colourless, but if filled with juice it was generally
green, though sometimes brown, yellow, or red, com-
municating its acquired colour to the epidermis, wheth-
er in the leaves, petals, or other parts of the plant."*

The mere empty cells form the cellular membrane,
and the same cells when filled with their appropriate
and frequently coloured juices, constitute the Paren-
chyma or pulp, which forms the great mass of succulent
plants and pulpy fruits. No plants are destitute of
this integument, for it is the seat of operations in-
dispensably necessary to healthy vegetation ; but
these operations will be more fully explained in our
chapter on the uses of leaves.

SECTION 3.

CORTICAL LAYERS.

If a stem of the Currant or a branch of the Lime
tree be divided transversely, we find within the cellu-
lar integument a series of concentric or Cortical Layers,
corresponding in number to the age of the stem or
branch we examine. In some instances they constitute

* Keith.

60 TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES.

the entire bark, and in all they are its most essential
portion.

The exterior and old " layers are coarse and loose
in their texture, exhibiting individually a conspicuous
and indurated, but very irregular net-work, composed
of bundles of longitudinal fibres, not ascending the stem
directly but winding more or less around the axis of the
plant.

As the layers recede from the circumference, the
net-work which they form is finer though still very ir-
regular, and their texture more compact. But al-
though irregular, the meshes of the different layers
often correspond, forming an aperture that extends as
far as the meshes coincide, but diminishing in size as
it penetrates towards the centre. In the trunks of
aged trees, such as the Oak and Elm, the apertures
thus formed, widen into large gaps and chinks, exhibit-
ing still in their distribution the rough traces of the
net-work of the original layer, now laid bare by the
decay of the epidermis and cellular integument."*

But in the bark of young trees and young branches,
these apertures are occupied by a cellular substance,
more or less indurated, which pervades the fibres of
the net-work and binds them together, but these fibres
being less perishable than the intervening substance
remain entire long after it has wasted away.

The inner layer, that which lies contiguous to the
wood is termed Liber, from its having been employed
in ancient manuscripts. It is more delicate than the
others and also more important ; whether we regard
its uses in the economy of vegetation, or its subservi-
ency to the wants of man.

* Keith.

WRTICAL LAYERs. 6i

From the inner bark of the Mulberry, the natives of
Otaheite manufacture their garments, and though
whimsical in their appearance, they are wrought with
great ingenuity. By a more refined process, the Liber
of the Flax is converted into fine linen, the "white
robe of innocence," which in the natural as well as in the
moral world, is obtained only through the exertions of
man and the bounty of his Creator. But even in its
natural state this organ is sometimes extremely beauti-
ful ; of this we have a remarkable example in the Lace
bark of Jamaica, whose net-work is scarcely inferior to
the finest lace ; and at the same time soft, flexible,
and shining as silk. It is obtained from a shrub* which
grows in the West India Islands where it is said to be
employed as an article of dress.

We see therefore that the cortical layers are com
posed of two distinct portions — longitudinal fibres
forming a network — and cellular substance occupying
the intervening spaces. The texture of the former
varies from the delicate fibres of the lace bark, to the
coarse meshe3 of the oak, but in all cases the net-work
is more durable than the intervening pulp, and more
capable of resisting the operation of chemical agents,
But the cortical layers of the Pine tribe present no
net-work, the Liber being composed of parallel adher-
ing fibres and the outer layers appearing like plates of
dried cellular integument, each separated from the oth-
er by an intervening membrane or epidermis.

The cellular texture which is so easily destroyed
by the action of air and water appears to contain the
peculiar secretions of plants frequently in their most
perfect state. Of this we have a very common exam-

* Daphne Lageito.

7

62 TEXTURE OF VEGETABLE:-.

pie in the bark of the Oak, whose layers in a living state
are closely connected with each other by the cellular
texture, but in consequence of long exposure this tex-
fure is destroyed and the separate layers only remain.
But with this substance, the astringency of the Oak is
gone. And if the bark of the Cinnamon be for a while
subjected to the action of boiling water ; the woody
fibres of the net-work remain uninjured but it loses its
exquisite flavour which probably resides in the inter
vening pulp.

SECTION 4.
WOOD.

The texture of the Wood which constitutes Uuj
great mass of trees and shrubs, was investigated with
peculiar care by Duhamel, and the same subject has
been more recently pursued by Mirbel and Knight,
with their usual ingenuity and success.

An old stem of the Currant, when transversely di-
vided, exhibits a series of concentric layers intersected
by plates which diverge from the pith to the bark,
like the ray* of a circle.* A transverse section of the
Oak presents a similar arrangement, but here the cir-
cular iayers are considerably thicker and the divergent
plates far more conspicuous than in the preceding ex-
ample. And if we would pursue the examination still
farther, the Ash, the Elm, and the Lilac, will serve to
!-hew that the arrangement so obvious in the Oak, pre-
vails also in other woody stems* The central layers
are usually most durable and complete, for those of the
circumference being still under the control of a living
principle, retain a portion of their peculiar juices,'

* Pigs. 7 and 8.

wood. t>;>

which can be suddenly dissipated only by the applica-
tion cf heat. This external portion of wood which is
named sap by the workmen, is for obvious reasons to
be rejected whenever durability and strength of mate-
rials are required. By Duhamel it was named Alburnum
inconsequence of its being uniformly white, whereas
the central layers are frequently of a different colour.
In the Guiacum they are black, in the Oak and Labur-
num they are brown, and in other examples they are
of a reddish hue. The exterior and unripe portion is
converted into perfect wood, much sooner in vigorous
trees than in others, and this change is sometimes ef-
fected earlier on one, than on the other side of the
same tree, inconsequence of its more vigorous growth.

The term Alburnum which Duhamel employed in a
more extensive sense, is usually restricted to the exter-
nal layer, whose texture is softer and more abur.
stored with juices than the others. From this pecul-
iarity of external character, it was at one time thought
to be a substance essentially different from that of the
layers it invests. By the ancients it was regarded as
analagous to the fat of animals, and intended perhaps to
serve as nutriment during the winter. But it is now
known to be merely wood in a less condensed state.
being yet lighter and softer than the interior layers,
but acquiring strength and solidity with age. It does
not however acquire its utmost degree of solidity till
after a number of years ; but when divested of its bark
it is converted into perfect wood in a single summer/'

It is generally believed that each of the concentric
layers is the growth of a single year, and that the age
of a tree may be known by the number of circular lay

♦Keith, Vol. J. p. 331.

64 TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES.

ers which compose its trunk. It has even been assert
ed that we may know what winters have been pecul-
iarly severe, by the hardness of the annual plates, and
what summers have been mild and serene by their su-
perior thickness. Duhamel having discovered some
exceptions to the truth of this general proposition was
led to reject it entirely, but his observations are not
deemed sufficient to invalidate an opinion which most
botanists have adopted. " It is very true that there
may be occasional interruptions in the formation of the
wood from cold or fickle seasons, and in some trees the
thin intermediate layers, hardly discernible in general,
which unite to form the principal or annual ones, may,
from such fluctuation of seasons, become more distinct
than is natural to them. Such intermediate layers are
even found more numerous in some trees of the same
species and age than in others. But as there is always
a most material difference between summer and winter,
so I believe there will always be a clear distinction
between the annual rings of such trees as shew them
at all. Trees of hot countries indeed, as Mahogany,
und evergreens in general, have them but indistinctly
marked ; yet even in these they are to be seen."*

The divergent plates sometimes termed silver grain
in allusion to their singular brightness, are particularly
numerous in the Maple and large in the Oak. They
seem to bind together the annual circles, and to increase
the strength of timber which without these connecting
bands, would have been easily shattered to pieces :
nor is it uncommon to see the former separated from
each other, in consequence of the destruction of their
silver grain. Each of these concentric layers is divisi-

* Smith.

wood. , 63

bie into others, which at last may be reduced to a net-
work of longitudinal fibres similar to those which exist
in the bark. The Hemlock tree Pinus Canadensis,
after a long exposure to the atmosphere exhibits a good
specimen of layers thus subdivided, nor is it easy to dis-
tinguish the component layers from the annual circles.
The same thing may be observed in the stem of the
Cabbage, which has been exposed to the weather until
its divergent plates are decomposed ; leaving its con-
centric layers distinct from each other like the tubes
of a telescope.

When minutely examined, the plates of silver grain
are found to be composed of parallel fibres closely
crowded together, and appearing like compressed cel-
lular membrane. We see therefore, that wood is com-
posed of longitudinal fibres forming ar.et-work, and cel-
lular tissue extending in a transverse direction, the two
iets of fibres being interwoven so as to make the entire
structure very compact, and thus corresponding to the
description of Grew, who compared one to the warp
and the other to the woof of a web.

After it was ascertained that a new layer is annually
deposited, it became a question whether it was formed
by the bark, the wood, or according to the specula-
tions of Linnaeus from the pith. But the experiments
of Duhamel and Hope, have put this question forever at
rest. The former, introduced plates of tinfoil between
the bark and wcod of growing trees, carefully bind-
ing up their wounds, and suffering them to remain sev-
eral years without further molestation. He found in
all cases, the layers of new 7 wood exterior to the tin.
Dr. Hope's experiment is equally decisive. He made
a longitudinal incision on the branch of a Willow, so as
to detach the wood from the bark, leaving the latter in

66 TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES.

the form of a hollow cylinder, by the side of the nak-
ed stem, and both portions retaining their original con-
nexion with the trunk and superior branches. After
a few years this tree was examined, and "the cylinder
of bark was found lined with layers of new wood, whose
numbers added to those of the wood from which it had
been stripped, made up the number of rings in the
branch above and below the experiment." But the
stem from which the bark had been removed remained
unaugmented. It appears therefore that two layers are
annually deposited on the inner surface of the bark,
similar at first and closely united, but gradually assu-
ming a distinct character, and at last receding from
each other in the form of wood and bark. At the com=
mencement of a second Spring, they are contiguous
but readily detached from each other, but ever after
wards are they separated by the intervention of the
more recent layers.

SECTION 5

PITH.

The pith is a soft spongy substance occupying the
entre of the stem, and extending from the root to the
extremity of the young branches. In the Ash it is un-
interrupted and compact, in the Garget Phytolacca de~
candra, it is composed of transverse partitions inter-
secting the tube of the stem, which in that plant is un-
usually large ; and in some of the Thistles, it more re-
sembles the web of a spider attached to the sides of the
tube, but neither regularly disposed nor so large as to
occupy its entire cavity. In the Hemlock and other

PITH. 67

Umbelliferous plants it forms a fine delicate lining, re-
markable in some cases for its brilliancy, and in many
of the grasses it presents a similar appearance. But in
the Zgzania or wild Rice, one of the largest grasses in
New-England, it forms in addition to this lining, distant
partitions which interrupt the cavity of the stem. —
When young the pith is usually green, becoming of a
snowy whiteness when old, though in a few cases it
becomes yellow or brown.

Its texture is precisely similar to that of the cellular
integument, being composed of cells which are seen to
the best advantage in the centre, for there they are
least compressed by the surrounding layers of wood.
These cells, which are unusually large in the Elder,
are filled with fluids when young, but in old branches
the fluids are gone and the empty cells only remain.

The pith is sometimes interspersed with fibres of a
very different texture. They occur in the old stems
of the Elder, and are still more conspicuous in the stalk
of the Indian Corn. In the former case, they are dis-
tinguished by their peculiar colour from the pith in
which they are imbedded, and the formation of these
fibres has been regarded as the commencement of the
process, by which the pith is converted into perfect
wood.

Of its uses in the economy of vegetation, but little is
known. Its structure being similar to that of the cel-
lular tissue, it is probably subservient to the same pur-
poses, though some writers have assigned to it more
important functions. Among them was Linnaeus, by
whom it was regarded as the source of nutriment, and
the seat of vegetable life. Others, and among them is
Mr. Knight, regard it as a reservoir of moisture, to
supply the leaves when exhausted by excessive exha-

65 TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES.

lation. But it has been observed that the pith of a
whole branch does not in many cases, contain sufficient
moisture to supply an hour's perspiration of a single
leaf; and an opinion, whose absurdity is thus easily
demonstrated, must be forever relinquished.

SECTION 5.

VEGETABLE FIBRE.

In the pith of the Indian Corn, we have seen a num-
ber of large insulated fibres, passing longitudinally
throughout its whole extent. In the leafstalk of Cel-
lery, in the stem of the common Brake, and also in
most herbaceous plants, we meet with similar fibres.
Viewed with a microscope, they are found to beabun-
dle of very slender fibres firmly connected together,
and forming a thread, which is usually elastic and fre-
quently strong. This thread is capable of repeated
subdivisions, but no art can divide the component fibres
to which it may easily be reduced.

In a similar way the net work of fibres which com-
pose a portion of the wood, and those of the silver-
grain, by which the former are intersected, may be re-
peatedly subdivided, and it is found that they differ not
only in structure and arrangement, but also in their de-
cree of strength. " This is obvious, from the well
known fact that wood may be easily split, in the direc-
tion of its longitudinal fibres, but not in the direction of
the transverse plates, owing evidently to the strong
and tough fabric of the former and to the slender and
delicate contexture of the latter."*

* Keith

VEGETABLE FIBRE. 69

The firmness of wood, and consequently its value as
timber, depends on the number and density of its lon-
gitudinal fibres. In the Guiacum and Mahogany they
are numerous and compact, in the Poplar they are few,
and the wood of the former is extremely hard, while
that of the Poplar is soft and spongy. But even in the
same plant these fibres are not uniform throughout, ac-
quiring their utmost degree of solidity only by age,
and being soft and tender in the more recent layers of
wood and bark. And the delicate fabric of these re-
cent layers, exhibits a difference, equally worthy of
observation. If for example, the bark is wounded, its
fibres will soon reunite, and no traces of the wound are
perceptible ; but when the wood is injured, its fibres
are never reunited and the injured part is never regen-
erated. We here see one of those admirable provis-
ions of Nature, which it is impossible to contemplate
without delight. The bark being exposed to frequent
injuries, is capable of restoring itself to health, but the
wood being comparatively secure, needs not and pos-
sesses not this preservative power.

But even these fibres, so slender that the naked eye
can scarcely detect them, are found to be tubular, and
they constitute the channel through which the fluids of
the vegetable pass from one organ to another. They
form in the aggregate bundles of hollow cylinders of
which Mirbel has given a very satisfactory description,
accompanied with some instructive hints relative to the
peculiar functions of each variety.

70 TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES.

SECTION 7.

VESSELS.

1. Simple Tubes. — Fig. 4 a. These are larger than
the other varieties, and have no lateral perforations.
They occur chiefly in the bark, sometimes in the albur-
num or in the fibres of herbaceous plants, but they arc
particularly obvious in vegetables which contain thick
and resinous juices. The peculiar colour of these jui-
ces, which on account of their consistence could not
readily pass through a channel of less diameter, will
frequently enable us to detect the simple tubes.

2. Porous Tubes. — Fig. 4 6. These resemble 'the
preceding in their general aspect, but the membrane
which forms them is not in this case entire ; being
pierced with small pores which are arranged in parallel
transverse rows. They occur chiefly in woody plants,
and are particularly abundant in the hard texture of the
Oak, but their uses are not very satisfactorily deter
mined.

3. Spiral Tnbes.. — Fig. 4 c. If a young shoot of the
Elder or Snowball is gently broken, its two fragments
will appear to be connected by transparent fibres,
which when closely examined, even to the naked eye
exhibit a spiral form. Fig. 5.

These are the coats of the spiral tubes uncoiled by
the separation of the fragments, and if the latter are
still farther separated, these fibres at last are broken,
retract and assume their original form. In this state
they have been compared to the Trachea or windpipe
of animals, but they more closely resemble the elastic
wire of suspenders which forms a complete tube ex-
cept when forcibly extended and then it represents the
spiral vessels in their uncoiled state. These tubes oc-

VESSELS. , i

cur chiefly in the stems of herbaceous plants, in young
shoots of tree3 and shrubs, and in leaves of every
description. They have rarely been detected either
in the mature wood or in the root, and the stems and
leaf-stalks of Liliaceous vegetables exhibit them to the
best advantage.* Of the nature and uses of these ves-
sels, but little is known. Some have described them
as the tubes through which the sap is propelled. Oth-
ers as air vessels which accompany the tubes through
which the sap passes in its ascent towards the leaf.
We know that healthy vegetation requires the pres-
ence of atmospheric air and it is reasonable to suppose,
that like the other substances by which plants are nour-
ished, this is furnished with an appropriate system of
vessels, and surely nothing could be better calculated
to answer this intention, than the spiral tubes which
we have seen in the leaves and their appendages.

4. False Spiral Tubes— Fig. 4 c. These appear
somewhat intermediate between the two preceding,
having transverse fissures, analagous to the pores of
the one and between these fissures rings which are not
unlike the spiral coat of the other. They occur more
frequently in herbaceous plants, and are particularly
abundant in the soft texture of the Vine, and it is proba-
ble that they are formed by the partial union of the
Spiral rings. This idea has been confirmed by inspect-
ing the Flowering Rush in which they are of a mixed
character the same vessel exhibiting the arrangement
of each variety being at once porous, spiral, and also in-
tersected by transverse fissures. Fig. 4 d.

5. Small Tubes are the only ones which remain to be

• No plants which I have examined, exhibit them so distinct-
ly, as the Skunk's Cabbage, which is well named and figured in
the American Medical Botany of Dr. Bigelow.

72 TEXTURE OF VEGETABLES.

noticed. They are composed of an assemblage of
elongated cells which have collectively been compared
to a bundle of tangent reeds, and individually to a straw
of wheat whose cavity is occasionally interrupted by
the joints. " The membrane of which they are formed
is often pierced with a great number of pores ; but is
at the same time thick and strong, being cut with diffi-
culty in a transverse direction, though in a longitudinal
direction it is divisible without effort. M. Mirbel says
the solidity of the vegetable depends upon the number
of interrupted or cellular tubes. They are not discov
erable in the embryo, nor even in the young plant at a
very early period, but only when the parts have been
fully developed, in which stage they are discoverable
in most plants without much difficulty, pervading the
ramifications of the branched Lichens, and the stems of
the Mosses ; surrounding the fibrous tubes of herba-
ceous plants, and constituting also longitudinal fibre ;
and intermingling themselves even with the fibrous
tubes of woody plants, and constituting part of the lig-
neous layers, as well as the prominent ridges with which
the surface of vegetables is marked. In the finer and
more delicate parts of the plant they are also equally
prevalent, but here they assume a different aspect,
and acquire a degree of consistence resembling that of
the cellular tissue."*

Thus it appears according to the observations of Mir-
bel and others that the structure of vegetables is en-
tirelv vascular being an assemblage of tubes and cells
which are formed by the foldings of a membrane so col-
ourless, transparent and fine that no one has been able
to discover any traces of its organization. The form

* Keith.

VESSEI.b. lo

oi'the ceils is somewhat diveysified, varying in conse
quence of the pressure of the juices with which they
are filled, as well as of the more substantial organs by
which they are surrounded ; usually, however, they
are hexagonal, and the student who has no other means
of gaining an adequate idea of their form and arrange
ment may profit by the illustration of Grew, who hap-
pily compared them to the bubbles that float on the
surface of fermenting liquors.

CHAPTER V.

SAP AND SECRETIONS.

In a former Chapter we have enumerated the van
ous substances by which plants are nourished,
and we have now seen through what pores this nutri-
ment is absorbed, in what cells it is elaborated, and
through what vessels it passes from one organ to anoth-
er. We are next to trace this food, which is abstract-
ed from the soil only in a fluid state, through its various
changes, to learn in what way it contributes to the
developement of new organs, and to the formation of
ihe vegetable secretions.

The water in which the roots of a plant are immers-
ed is gradually absorbed, and during the season of ve-
getation, it ascends through the vessels of the stem
with great rapidity and with great force, but still lim-
pid, tasteless and inert, possessing only the properties
of the pure water from which it was derived. This
fluid constitutes the Sap. In some plants and at certain
seasons it is particularly abundant. If wounded in the
spring previous to the expansion of their buds, the sap
of the Vine, Maple or Birch, flows profusely, but at
mid-summer, after the leaves are fully developed, the
" tears of the Vine'' are comparatively few. It is not
unusual in this country to collect one or two hundred
pounds of sap from a single Maple of ordinary size, and
we are told that a Birch tree when wounded, has been
known to discharge a quantity equal to its own weight.

CIRCULATION OF THE SAP. 75

Yet, at mid-summer when the whole energies of the ve-
getable are exerted, these trees scarcely bleed at all.

The flowing of the sap is usually regarded as the ef-
fect of its accumulation in the vessels, at a season when
there are no leaves through which, in the form of va-
pour it may escape. Dr. Smith however regards it as
the effect of heat, operating on the irritability of the
plant, and he considers it as the first step towards the
revival of vegetation from the torpor of winter. To
this hypothesis there are very serious objections, for
many trees bleed in the autumn after the leaves begin to
fade and fall, as well as in the spring before the buds
are open.

During the season of vegetation, the motion of the
sap is uninterrupted, and the energy with which it
moves, is in some cases very great. Dr. Hales found
that it ascends in the stem of the Vine, with force suffi-
cient to elevate a column of water more than forty feet,
By what means is it thus forcibly propelled ? The capilla-
ry attraction of the tubes, the influence of temperature
and the winds, have all been regarded as the agents
by which the sap is elevated, but they all appear inad-
equate to produce the effect. Nor is the hypothesis
of Mr. Knight in any degree satisfactory. Having as-
certained that the silver grain of the Oak is susceptible
of quick changes from variations of temperature, he
thinks that these changes may alternately contract and
enlarge the diameter of the tubes, and thus forcibly
propel the fluids which they contain. But the action
of heat operating on the silver grain, would as much
promote circulation through a dead and leafless branch
as any other. The inherent irritability of the vessels,
furnishes the only satisfactory explanation, for it is the
only adequate cause of the sap's ascent. And of the

l4 SAP.

sufficiency of this, there can scarcely be a doubt, for
we have already learned,* that when the life of a plant
is destroyed by electricity, though its texture is unin-
jured, it ceases to bleed, and its fluids remain stationa-
ry* But still they are exposed to all the other agents
which have been thought to accelerate their motion.

The ascending sap is usually insipid and inodorous,
being according to the experiments of the French
chemists but slightly impregnated with those substan-
ces, by which plants are nourished, and from which
their secretions are formed.

As soon as the leaves expand, this excess of moisture
is exhaled, chiefly through the pores of their epider-
mis, and the fluid thus perspired appears scarcely dif-
ferent from pure water, being the residue of sap de-
prived of the elements of those secretions which are
formed during vegetation ; and though it escapes unseen,
its amount is in some cases very considerable. A
?mall plant of the Sunflower was found to exhale more
than a pound in the course of a day, and the Corneti
tree of Europe, perspires still more freely.

But the sap does not ascend indiscriminately, through
every portion of the stem. A tree may be divested of
its bark, and it will produce its usual supply of leaves,
and an increased quantity of fruit. Mr. Knight remov-
ed the pith from a young shrub, and it continued to
jtow with its former luxuriance. The nutriment there-
fore does not ascend ' through the bark or pith. Nor
does it pass through the central portion of the woody
stem, for its vessels are nearly consolidated, and they
are not, even during the bleeding season, filled with a
limpid fluid. But one channel remains, and it is the
alburnum of trees and shrubs, or the analagous por-
tions of herbaceous plants, and hence we learn why the
* Page 25.

CAMBtUM.

77

operation of girdling, by which the vessels of their al-
burnum are divided, not only arrests the vegetation,
of trees but destroys their life.

This opinion is also confirmed by experiments with
coloured infusions, which tinge the vessels through
which they pass, and give us a better opportunity of
tracing their progress. In this way Mirbel ascertained
that the small tubes are the channels through which the
sap ascends, because they and they only are tinged with
the infusion, and he adds in confirmation of his
own correctness, that they are filled with a limpid fluid
during the bleeding season.

Mr. Knight has pursued this enquiry still further,
and finds that the sap enters the leaf-stalk, through the
centre of those fibres by which it is attached to the
branch, and that it passes on to the surface of the leaf,
through vessels which appear to be a continuation of
the small tubes of Mirbel. In the cellular tissue of the
leaf, the sap is renovated, its superfluous moisture es-
capes through the pores of the epidermis, and the pe-
culiar juice of the vegetable, sometimes denominated
Cambium, is formed. It is green in the Periwincle,
orange in the Bloodroot, and white in the Poppy and
Milkweed, being the great principle from which the
various organs of the plant are developed, and ofttimes
the seat of its medical virtues. Like the sap it passes
in an appropriate set of tubes, which arise from the
expanded surface of the leaf, pass through its footstalk
exterior to the central tubes, and penetrate the stem or
branch to which the leaf is attached. From the ex-
periments of Mr. Knight, we learn through what por-
tion of the stem, and through what system of vessels,
it descends to the root. Having detached a ring of
bark from the trunk of a young tree, he found that the

78 SAP.

sap continued to rise, and the portion above the incis-
ion augmented as usual, while the portion below the
ring scarcely augmented at all. " But if a bud was pro-
truded under the ring, and the shoot arising from it
allowed to remain, then the portion of the trunk below
that bud began immediately to augment in size, while
the portion between the bud and incision remained
nearly as before. When two circular incisions were
made in the trunk so as to leave a ring of bark between
them, with a leaf growing from it, the portion above
the leaf died, while the portion below the leaf lived ;
and when the upper part of a branch was stripped of
its leaves, the bark withered as far as it was stript.
Whence it is evident that the sap which has been
elaborated in the leaves and converted into proper
juice, descends through the channel of the bark, or
rather between the bark and alburnum to the extremi-
ty of the root, effecting the developement of new and
additional parts.

But not only is the bark thus ascertained to be the
channel of the descent of the proper juice, after enter-
ing the trunk ; the peculiar vessels through which it
immediately passes, have been ascertained also. In
the language of Mr. Knight they are merely a continua-
tion of the external tubes already noticed, which after
quitting the base of the footstalk he describes as not
only penetrating the inner bark, but descending along
with it, and conducting the proper juice to the very
extremity of the root. In the language of M. Mirbel,
they are the large or rather simple tubes so abundant
in the bark of woody piants, though not altogether con-
fined to it ; and so well adapted by the width of their
diameter, to afford a passage to the proper juice." 5 *

* Keith.

DESCENT OP THE CAMBIUM. 79

The practice which was adopted by Mr. Knight for
the illustration of vegetable physics, has been pursued
both in Europe and in this country for a very different
object. If a ring of bark is detached in the spring from
the trunk of the Olive, the quantity of its fruit is very
considerably increased. If a branch of the Vine
is treated in a similar way, it has been ascertained that
its fruit arrives at maturity, three or four weeks earlier
than usual. By adopting this plan, those tender Grapes
which could not otherwise be cultivated with success
at Paris, have been brought to perfection.* The
practice has also been adopted in this country, and it is
not uncommon to see Apple and other fruit trees, with
a portion of their bark detached. It has indeed super-
ceded the old rude practices, of filling their trunks
with nails, and boring to their pith, in order to increase
the quantity of their blossoms and fruit.

The observations of Mr. Knight teach us in what
way the removal of a small portion of bark, may add to
the fertility of the fruit tree. By intercepting the de-
scent of the Cambium, a larger supply of food is collect-
ed in the extreme branches, and thus the fertility of
the tree, and the luxuriance of its young branches,
are at once promoted. And the same observations
teach us, that whatever impedes the descent of the
Cambium, will sooner or later interrupt the progress
of vegetation, for the root being deprived of its custom-
ary nourishment, loses its vigour and ceases to abstract
from the earth, an adequate supply of those materials,
by which old organs are nourished, and new ones are
formed. They also teach us that the fluids of a leaflet

* Desfontaine's Arbres, &c

80 SECRETIONS.

tree, cannot circulate, except through the lateral orifi-
ces of its vessels ; for the small tubes through which
the sap is elevated, and the simple ones through which
the Cambium descends, have no direct communication
with each other, except on the leaf's expanded surface.
It is obvious, therefore, that the vascular system, at
least that portion of it through which the fluids circu-
late, must in every case be co-existent with the leaf,
annual in deciduous trees, and perennial in all others.
But the^renovated sap as it descends from the leaf,
contains not merely woody fibre for the increase of the
vegetable : it has acquired other substances on which
its flavour and medical virtues depend. We shall enu-
merate those only which are most important.

STARCH, whose properties are well known, is a very
common product of vegetable secretion, being partic-
ularly abundant in every kind of grain, and existing in
large quantities in Potatoes and other nutritive roots.
In the form of Sago, it is obtained from the pith of some
of the East Indian Palms, and Salop which also is a pe-
culiar modification of starch, is procured from the roots
of various species of Orchis.

GLUTEN. — After the Starch is extracted from flour,
there remains a darkish adhesive substance, named
gluten, or vegetable glue. Exposed to a moderate de-
gree of heat, it yields large quantities of fixed air, which
renders the pastry of flour porous and light ; and hence
its utility in the manufacture of bread . Yeast, in what-
ever mode it is formed, contains gluten, whose decom-
position affords fixed air and whose tenacity retains it.
GUM. — Another product of vegetable secretion is
mucilage or gum. It is commonly procured from those
trees and shrubs which, in their uncultivated state,
are armed with thorns. These organs are their only

SUGAR. 81

security against the attacks of animals, whose fondness
for mucilage, would cause them to wound the trees
which afford it. The different species of Mimosa, the
Astragalus Tragacantha, as well as the Plumb, in their
native situations, are in this way defended, and from
them the most perfect examples of gum are obtained.
It is also procured from the Lichens which cover some
tracts of land, and abound on the bark of decaying trees ;
and the gum which is thus obtained, has been substitut-
ed for the more costly productions of Arabia and Crete.
The leaves of various species of Mallows, and the seeds
of Quinces, furnish familiar examples of mucilage near-
ly allied to the preceding.

SUGAR. — To the secretion of plants, we owe the
existence of Sugar. It has long been employed by the
Chinese, and previous to their invasion by the Span-
iards, the natives of this continent, were in the habit of
extracting it from the stalk of the Corn, which they
cultivated for food, and from the Virginian Aloe, Agave
Virginica, which grows spontaneously at the South. In
one of the Mexican cities, the Spaniards found a large
supply of sugar which had been in this way procured.
It was unknown in Europe until the nfth century, when
one of the Fathers describing the province of Choras-
san, mentioned among its charms the " valley of
Saporem, where the precious sugar was made." It
has now become an essential article of food, employed
to a greater or less extent by all the nations of Europe,
and by all the civilized world. In tropical countries
it is commonly obtained from the expressed juice of the
Saccharum Officinarum or Sugar Cane, but the Maple of
fhe North, yields it equally pure and scarcely less abun-
dant. It exists also in the roots of some, and in the

82 SECRETIONS-

esculent fruit of many plants, communicating a swee •:
and usually an agreeable taste.

ACIDS exist in many plants, and when sufficiently
abundant, they communicate their own peculiar taste
to the organs which contain them. Thus for example
the leaves of the Sorrel, and the fruit of the Lemon
tree, are both sour. Chemistry has ascertained the
existence of several peculiar acids, which exist in the
'eaves and other parts of different plants ; they have
usually a sour, sometimes an astringent taste, but they
are better known by their effects on the vegetable col-
ours. The Prussic acid, which may be obtained by
distilling the leaves and kernel of the Peach tree, pos-
sesses the flavour of bitter almonds, and is, when used
to excess, a poison of the most virulent kind. This
should teach us caution in the use of the distilled wate r
of the Peach, which possesses to a greater or less ex-
tent, the dangerous properties of the acid in question.
The Tartaric acid exists in the juice of the grape, and
constitutes the principal ingredient of the well known
salt, Cream of tartar. It is deposited on the bottom of
wine casks, where it is found in sufficient abundance to
supply the apothecary with a very important medicine.
The Malic acid exists in the juice of Apples, Bar-
berries, Plumbs, Currants and Strawberries, and it is
essentially different from those which communicate a
sour taste to the Sorrel and Lemon. Jellies contain
the peculiar acids of the fruit from which they are
procured, united with sugar, and in some cases with
mucilage or starch, and the agreeable healthy qualities
of most fruits depend on the vegetable acid which they
contain.

TANNIN.— If nutgalls or grape seeds are pulverized
and dissolved in cold water, the solution when evapo-

EXTRACT. 83

rated, presents the tannin principle in a very pure
state. It is yellowish, very astringent, brittle, and
abundantly soluble either in alcohol or water. Its
combinations with iron are black, and by its union with
gelatine, it forms an insoluble compound. On account
of its astringency, it is of very great utility in medicine,
and the virtues of the Peruvian bark, Cinchona Officin-
alis, so celebrated as a febrifuge and tonic, are supposed
to reside chiefly in this principle. Its combinations
with iron form the basis of writing ink, and by its union
with gelatine, leather is formed, and hence we perceive
the utility of those barks which the tanner employs ;
they being in all cases strongly impregnated with the
tannin principle. In this country the bark of the
Hemlock, Pinus Canadensis, is preferred to every other,
but various species of Willow and Oak are scarcely less
valuable, in the manufacture of leather.

EXTRACT.— That portion of the vegetable which
is soluble in water, but becomes insoluble when expos-
ed to the atmosphere, is denominated extract. It is
a very common product of vegetable analysis, and it
appears that its properties are not well defined, for the
extracts which are obtained from different plants, do
not appear to be precisely the same. Some of them
are employed in medicine, others in the arts. They
supply us with most of the colours used in dyeing, and
having a powerful affinity to the fibres of linen and cot-
ton, they communicate an almost indelible tinge to the
various textures with which they unite. The most
frequent of these colours are blue, red, yellow and
brown .

BLUE. — Indigo presents a beautiful example. It is
obtained from the leaves of the Indigo plant, Indigofera
tintioria, which is cultivated extensively in India and

84 SECRETIONS.

at the south. When the plant is about six months old,
these leaves are gathered and macerated in water, till
they begin to ferment ; they are then removed, and
the colouring material, which is extracted by the wa-
ter, is soon afterwards deposited. It is green^at first,
but in consequence of exposure to the atmosphere, it
gradually becomes blue. Similar to this is theWoad,
Isatis tinctoria, with which the ancient Britons stained
their bodies, that they might appear more terrible to
their enemies in battle. The culture of this plant has
been strongly recommended to the American farmer,
and as a dyeing material, it is scarcely inferior to the
preceding.

RED colours exist in various plants. Madder, which
is obtained from the dried roots and stems of Rubia
tinctorum, is not only beautiful but very penetrating,
for it tinges the bones of animals, when mixed with
their food. From different species of Lichen a similar
colour is obtained ; and this is the origin of the Litmus,
much celebrated as the chemical test of alkalies and
acids. From the flowers of the Carthamus tinctorius^
usually but improperly named Saffron, a red colour is
extracted, from which rouge is manufactured, by mix-
ing it with the powder of talc. The celebrated Cam-
peachy, and Brasil woods, whose names allude to the
countries from which they are imported, are well
known, and important colouring materials.

YELLOW is also obtained from different plants, par-
ticularly from the bark of Quercitron, and some species
of Sumach. The Anatto of commerce, "is obtained
from the Bixa orellana, a tree that grows in South
America, and produces fruit twice in a year. The
seeds are bruised and kneaded with a little oil into a
paste, known by the name of rocou, from the decoction

oils. ;;•:>

ot which in water, it is precipitated by alum with
which it forms a yellow lake."'

The BROWN colour of vegetables, is equally abun-
dant. It is obtained very frequently from the bark of
the Butternut and Walnut trees, from the Sumach and
various species of Oak, as well as from the nutgalls
which are found on the leaves of the latter.

VEGETABLE OILS.— Fixed oils are usually ex-
tracted from the seeds', sometimes from the pulpy fruits
of their respective plants. Some of them are used as
food, some as medicine, and others in the preparation
of the most durable paints which the artist employs.

OLIVE OIL is extracted from the pulpy fruit of the
Olive Olea Europea, a shrub which grows naturally in
the south of Europe, and the Almond which also grows
in Italy and Spain, yields an oil equally well known,
though perhaps less extensively employed. The se
cretions of the same vegetable are frequently various,
but it is worthy of observation, that the cotyledons of
its seeds are always nutritive and mild. The Poppy,
so famed for its narcotic properties, will serve to ex-
emplify the truth cf this remark, for the oil which is
extracted from its seed, is tasteless, inodorous and mild,
being used like Olive oil for food, and possessing noth-
ing of the narcotic properties of the plant from which
it is obtained.

VOLATILE OILS are also extracted from various

plants. They exist in the bark of the Cinnamon, in

the leaves of Mint, Partridge-berry and Geranium, and

in the flowers of Clethra, Jasmine and Rose. From

these they may usually be obtained by distillation or

expression, but the fiagranceof the Jasmine is best

preserved by steeping its flowers in fixed oil, till it has

acquired their rich perlume.
9

86 SECRETIONS.

" The odour of plants," says Dr. Smith, " is un-
questionably of a resinous nature, a volatile essential
oil, and several phenomena attending it well deserve
our attentive consideration. Its general nature is evin-
ced by its ready union with spirits or oil, not with wa-
ter, yet the moisture of the atmosphere seems, in
many instances, powerfully to favour its diffusion.
This I apprehend to arise more from the favourable
action of such moisture upon the health and vigour of
the plant itself, thus occasionally promoting its odorous
secretions, than from the fitness of the atmosphere, so
circumstanced to convey them. Both causes, howev-
er, may operate. A number of flowers which have no
scent in the course of the day, smell powerfully in the
evening, whether the air be moist or dry, or whether
ihey happen to be exposed to it or not. This is the
property of some which Linnagus has elegantly called
Jlores tristes, melancholy flowers, belonging to various
tribes us discordant as possible, agreeing only in their
nocturnal fragrance, which is peculiar, very similar
and exquisitely delicious in all of them, and in the pale
yellowish, greenish, or brownish tint of their flowers.
The sweet smell of new hay, (sometimes termed the
gramineous flavour) is found not only in several Grass-
es, but in Woodruff, Mellilot, and other plants widely
different from each other in botanical characters, a-
well a* in colour and every particular except smell.

Their odour has one peculiarity, that it is not at all
perceptible while the plants are growing, nor till they
begin to dry. It proceeds from their whole herbage,
and should seem to escape from the orifices of its con-
taining cells, only when the surrounding vessels, by
growing less turgid, withdraw their pressure from such

RESIN. f

orifices. When this scent of new hay is vehement, it
becomes the flavour of bitter almonds."

Both the fixed and volatile oils become concrete in
consequence of the absorption of oxygen, constituting
Wax in the former case and Resin in the latter. Wax
is found under various modifications, communicating a
glossy surface to many leaves, and existing in the form
of a yellow powder on the anthers of almost every
flower. From the latter, bees extract it, and though
at first yellowish and somewhat aromatic, it soon be-
comes white and inodorous, if exposed in thin layers
to the influence of the atmosphere and light. Wax as-
sumes various degrees of solidity, and different terms
have been employed to express the peculiar hardness.
Thus when obtained from the Chocolate Plant, Thco-
broma Cacaco, it is yellow and soft, forming the butter
of Cacao, and this is the substance from which the pe-
culiar flavour of Chocolate is derived. But when ob-
tained from the Bayberry, Myrica cerifera, it assumes a
more concrete form, and constitutes the well known
bayberry tallow, which, in this section of the country,
is frequently employed as a substitute for bees wax.
Wax is extremely inflammable, and exposed to a mod-
erate degree of heat, it is dissipated in the form of va-
pour. In consequence of its disengagement in thi^
invisible shape, it sometimes forms a combustible atmos-
phere around the plant that yields it, and if in a dry seas-
on, a candle is brought near to the Fraxinella, its at-
mosphere is immediately inflamed, and the wax, which
is particularly abundant in that plant, furnishes a satis-
factory explanation of the phenomenon.

RESIN. From the various species of Pine, there
exudes a balsam, which concretes in the form of tears.
It differs somewhat according to the peculiar tree from

o8 SECRETIONS.

which it is obtained, and by distillation it is sepauu-
ted into two distinct ingredients : Oil of turpentine,
which is volatile, and Resin, which is not. If a quan-
tity of pine wood is collected, covered with turf, and
then set on fire, the resinous juice which would have
been dissipated in the open air, may be collected in
a suitable receptacle beneath. In this way, tar and
pitch, two well known articles of commerce, and both
of a resinous nature, are usually procured.

Some of the most common examples of resin, are
Copal from a species of Sumach, Mastick from the Pis-
tacea, a tree which grows in the island of Chios, and
^andarach from the common Juniper. From the Amyris
Gileadensis, a shrub which grows in Palestine and Arabi-
ans obtained a resin longcelebrated for itsmedical vir-
tues. It is the Balm of Gilead, so frequently alluded to
in sacred history, and it is still highly prized by the
Turks, who prohibit its exportation.

On the epidermis of many vegetables, we find a soft
blueish powder which may easily be removed. It is
denominated the Bloom, and occurs on Plumbs, Cab-
bage leaves, and several other plants, always resisting
the action of water, but like the other resins readily
-oluble in alcohol.

No kind of wood is so durable as that in which the
resinous secretion abounds. It is rarely injured by
those insects which devour the hardest timber, and
the insolubility of resin most effectually secures it
from the destroying agency of water. As a proof
of this fact, it has been observed that the Cypress
Sates of Constantinople, erected by the Emperor Con-
stantine, were found undecayed a thousand years after
they were built. It is owing to this secretion that
Pine is more durable than the hardest Oak, though at

NARCtfTIC PRINCIPLE. 89

the same time it contains much less of the woody fibre,
on which the value of timber usually depends.

The BITTER PRINCIPLE is afforded by many of
our native plants. Two species of Gentian, whose
flowers are the brightest ornaments of our meadows,
and the bark of several of our forest trees, possess bit-
ter qualities, and have been successfully employed as
medicines. The beautiful Coptis, whose yellow roots
have acquired the name of Gold-thread, has been long
in use as a domestic remedy, and it owes its efficacy
and colour to this secretion.

The NARCOTIC PRINCIPLE.— There is a class of
plants, which the Botanist recognizes by their lurid as-
pect, and the physician, by their narcotic and poison-
ous qualities. Opium, which is extracted from the
Poppy is most frequently employed; but Henbane.
Nightshade, Belladona and Stramonium, all produce
their "drowsy syrups," equally powerful, and equally
to be avoided on account of their noxious qualities.

But these poisons shrink into insignificance, when
compared with the reputed properties of the Upas tree
of Java. In the midst of a desert, several leagues from
the habitation of man, it was approached by none but
the condemned criminal, whose punishment was remit-
ted, if he returned with a branch of the fatal tree. —
Nothing could sustain its noxious exhalations, not even
a kindred plant, so that for twelve miles around, the
earth was a barren waste, and occasionally, as if to ren-
der the prospect more cheerless, the bones of other
victims served to remind the unfortunate visitor of his
approaching fate. Such were its reputed properties ;
but since Java has been frequently visited by Europe-
ans, the Upas tree has been approached with impuni-
ty, and examined with care, and it appears to abound
9 *

90 SEGRETIONS.

in a poisonous secretion, but no longer capable of dif-
fusing pestilence over an extensive territory.

CAMPHOR, is obtained by distilling the wood and
bark of Laurus camphor a, and according to Sir Hum-
phry Davy, it exists in Sassafras, Marjoram and Sage.
Its properties and appearance are well known.

The ELASTIC GUM, more frequently termed In-
dia rubber, is obtained from the Urceola, Jatropha, and
other trees of warm climates. When their bark is
wounded, it exudes in the form of a milky juice, which
becomes black in consequence of being dried in the
smoke. The fluid which exudes so abundantly from
different species of Silk weed Asclepias, is said to be a
variety of elastic gum.

When wood is exposed to the action of an open fire,
it burns with a yellow flame, and disappears in the form
of vapour and smoke, or remains in the form of ashes,
but exposed to an intense close heat, it is converted
into charcoal. From the latter product, wood derives
its strength as timber, and its value as fuel ; the soil
its fertility, and the growing plant its food ; — but it can-
not with propriety be classed with the vegetable secre-
tions. The same remark is applicable to the alkalies
and earths which are found in the ashes of plants, and
in the soil by which they are nourished, constituting
an essential ingredient of both ; and formed with the
"primaeval mountains of the globe," but not as has
been fondly imagined, a product of vegetation.

We have now examined the most important of the
vegetable secretions, and the examination is one of the
deepest interest. It has presented to our view the
root, absorbing from the earth, a tasteless, limpid, and
inodorous fluid, possessing the properties of mere wa-
ter ; it has enabled us to trace this fluid through an np

SECRETIONS, 91

propnate system of vessels, till it reaches the leaf, to
observe the new properties which it there acquires,
and the various substances into which it is converted,
at once yielding the flinty earth of the epidermis for its
own protection, and the grateful perfume of its flowers
for our delight ; to see it forming resin, a security from
moisture and decay, and gum, which is soluble and ea-
sily converted into the food of plants and animals ;
forming at one time, medicines to relieve, at another,
the poison to destroy ; to see it yielding the sweetest
as well as the most bitter draught, and contributing to
the formation of organs, which delight us with every
variety of colour, and beauty, and fragrance.

CHAPTER VI

DURATION, SURFACE, &c.

In the preceding chapters, we have seen the embryo
of the seed unfolded, and by the combined influence of
air, water, and heat, assuming the form of a perfect
plant. We have learnt by what agents its growth is
promoted, by what substances it is nourished, through
what vessels its aliment passes, and into what produc-
tions this aliment is converted. It is impossible to
pursue this inquiry without interest, for it reveals the
nature and extent of those operations which are con-
stantly going on in the tender vegetable frame, conver
ting the dust of the earth into wholesome nutriment,
aud supplying us with the ordinary comforts of life.

But the paths of Systematic Botany, are equally de-
lightful, for they lead us to an acquaintance with those
plants, which frequently' fall under our observation,
and teach us how to discriminate and how to arrange
them. The delineation of an entire vegetable, pre-
sents to our view, the root, the stem, and its branches,
the leaves and their various appendages, organs which
assume almost every shape, and enable us by attending
to their varieties, to discriminate between kindred
plants. It also exhibits the flower and fruit, with
their respective appendages, organs by which the per-
petuity of the vegetable kingdom is ensured, and on
which the Botanist establishes characters, of the most
unquestionable nature.

DURATION. 93

It is our design, to present an isolated view of these
various; organs, accompanied with a few observations
respecting the utility of each, in the economy of vege-
tation. The terms with which this portion of our sub-
ject is beset, present a formidable aspect to the eye of
the student, especially if he has been taught to consid-
er the language of Botany, as a burden of pedantic
learning, which may without inconvenience be spared.

In order to avoid an unnecessary repetition, those
terms which are equally applicable to different organs,
and sometimes employed to express the general char-
acter of the plant we examine, will be here defined and
illustrated, by a reference to well known examples.
They relate chiefly to duration, surface and numbers,
but embrace others of a miscellaneous nature, which
do not fall within the limits of the succeeding chapters.

DURATION.— With respect to duration, plants are
annual,Q* when they live only one year ; biennial, & *
when they live only two years, producing flowers and
fruit but once ; and perennial, 1J.* when they produce
flowers and fruit several years in succession. The Sun
flower is an example of the first variety, the Foxglove
of the second, and trees and shrubs are all included un-
der the last division. These distinctions are not al-
ways absolute ; for a biennial plant may be made to
live several years, by removing the flower-buds before
they expand, and a perennial plant of warm climates,
frequently becomes annual, when transported to less
temperate regions. If the stem of a perennial plant
annually dies to the ground, it i« said to be herbace-
ous, and ranks with annuals, from which it is some-

* These signs are frequently employed, instead of the terms
to which they are annexed, in order to express the particular
duration of any plant.

94 SURFACE.

times with difficulty distinguished. If its stem is small,
woody, and subdivided into numerous branches, from
the summit nearly to the ground, it is said to be fru-
ticose or shrubby, and the Lilac is a very common ex-
ample. When the branches annually perish, leaving
the main stalk alive, and when the whole shrub is ex-
tremely ^lender, as in Pyrola, and Partridge berry, it
is Paid to be sujfruticose. If a plant extends itself late-
rally, and covers the earth so as to form a turf, it is
cmspitose or turfy, and the Moss-pink Phlox subulata, is
an example.

If its cellular texture is abundant, and filled with
juices, as in the Ice plant it is said to be succulent.
If it thrives only in water it is said to be aquatic, and
the Pond Lilly is an example ; if on the margin of the
sea, it is maraiime, and the Marsh Rosemary is an ex-
ample ; if in sea water, it is marine, and the numerous
-Sea weeds are examples. Those plants are said to be
native, which have flourished in any particular district,
without the aid, and beyond the recollection of man,
and those are exotic which were brought from a for-
eign country, and cannot be preserved except by cul-
tivation. When a foreign plant thrives, and extends
itself without culture, it is said to be naturalized.
The Dandelion, which is a native of Europe, has be-
come extensively naturalized on this continent, and no
plant is more common or better known.

SURFACE. — When the surface of a plant is smooth,
without visible hairs or bristles, it is said to be glabrous,
and the leaves of Snake head, Chelone glabra, and also
of the Elder, are good examples. The term even also
denotes smoothness, and is opposed to roughness and
irregularity of surface.

When the surface is so smooth as to glitter or shine.

PUBESCENCE. B5

it is said to be polished : the leaves of the Holly and the
stalk of the Maiden hair furnish examples.

When the surface is covered with a resinous or ad-
hesive substance, such as occurs on the stem of some
species of Catchfly, Silene, and on the flowers of the
White Honeysuckle, Azalea viscosa ; it is said to be
viscid.

When covered with soft tubercles like the Ice plant,
it is papillose, and verrucose or warty when these tuber-
cles are large.

When covered with a resinous secretion, sometimes
denominated bloom, it is said to be glaucous, and the
stem of the Raspberry, and the fruit of the Plumb tree
furnish examples.

Some plants are hoary, either from the presence of
close silky hairs, or of a scaly powder analagous to
bloom, communicating in either case a whitish appear-
ance. Wormwood and Hoary Basil, Pycnanthemum
incanum are examples. W T here the surface is beset
with numerous fine glossy hairs, it is said to be Silky,
and Villous when these hairs are white, long and soft,
It is termed Tomentose, or downy, when covered with
soft hairs so interwoven as to be scarcely discernible,
as in Velvet Leaf, Sida Abutilon. When these hairs
are of a rust colour, the plant is sometimes termed fer-
ruginous.

It is pilose, or hairy , when beset with long, single hairs,
as, in Norway Cinquefoil, Potentilla Norwegia. It is
woolly, as in the Mullein, hispid as in Borage, hirsute as
in Ground Laurel, Epigea repens, and Scabrous or rough
to the touch from inequality of surface, as in the leaves
of the Black Mulberry and Elm.

It is striated, when marked with fine parallel lines

96 SURFACE.

as in the straws of many grasses, and it isfurrowed, when
these lines or depressions are deeper as in the stem of
wild Parsnip, and other umbelliferous plants.

It is often desirable so express the number of par-
ticular organs, and no terms occur more frequently
than those which are employed for this purpose. Like
other technical names, they are sometimes derived
from the Greek, and sometimes from the Latin lan-
guage ; Thus

A plant with A flower cup with

One leaf is uni-foliate One leaf is mono-phyllous
Two leaves bi-foliate Two di-phyllous

Three leaves tri-foliate Three tri-phyllous
Four leaves quadri-foliate Four tetra-phyllous

Many leaves multi-foliate Many poly-phyllous

These terms conjoined with others to be hereafter
explained, occur in the technical description of almost
every plant, and the student who has once learned
them, will have removed a very formidable impediment
to his future researches.

CHAPTER VII.

THE ROOT.

'* The root, is that part of a plant by which it attach-
es itself to the soil in which it grows, or to the substance
on which it feeds, and is the principal organ of nutri-
tion." This definition does not apply to those plants
which float in the water without any attachment, but it
embraces every kind of root, which the student, whose
observations are not extended to aquatic vegetables,
will probably find.

It applies to the branching root, by which trees.,
shrubs, and many perennial plants are nourished and
supported. Like the stem, it is subdivided into numer-
ous, branches, some of which penetrate deep into the
earth, and others creep extensively beneath its surface,
But in whatever way it is subdivided, its branches al-
ways terminate in minute filaments or radicles, which
alone abstract nutriment from the earth.

It applies to the fibrous root, Fig. 9, which consists
merely of slender fibres, that convey nourishment to
the basis of the stem, as in most grasses and annua!
plants.

It applies to the creeping root, Fig. 15, which ex-
tends horizontally beneath the earth's surface, occa-
sionally sending up stems at a distance from the parent
plant, as in Mint.

It applies also to other varieties. One of these is
the tuberous root, which consists of one or more fleshy
10

98 THE ROOi-

knobs,like the Artichoke and Potatoe. "When two or
more of these knobs are connected at their base, they
constitute the palmate root, Fig. 13, and the fascicula-
ted, when several are bundled together. Various spe-
cies oWrchis present examples of the two last varieties.

When the root descends perpendicularly, gradually
tapering downwards, as in the Radish, Carrot, and Par-
snip, it is termed fusiform or spindle-shaped.

When it terminates abruptly, as if its lower extremi-
ty were bitten off, it is termed abrupt or prcemorse, and
when several small knobs or grains, are strung togeth-
er along the sides of radical fibres, as in the English
Saxifrage, and Wood Sorrel, Fig. 10, they constitute
the granulated root.

BULBS, are subterranean organs, somewhat anala-
gous to buds, having numerous radical fibres attached
to their inferior surface, and constituting the bulbous
root. Bulbs themselves do not exactly fall within the
limits of tbe definition which stands at the head of this
chapter. But as they are usually regarded and describ-
ed as roots, it will not be improper to mention the three
varieties which most frequently occur. The first is
scaly, as in the Lily, Fig. 11, the second is tunicate or
coated, as in the Onion, Fig. 12, the third is solid, as
in Crocus, or English Saffron.

Of these several varieties, the fibrous root is most
simple, consisting merely of fibres, which diverge in
every direction in search of nourishment, and to se-
cure a firm attachment to the soil. Most 'annual
plants are furnished with a fibrous root of this descrip-
tion, and by a wise provision of Nature, the more they
are stripped of their leaves, the more vigorous will be
the growth of their roots. In this respect they are pe-
culiar, for all other vegetables, when robbed of their

FIBROUS ROOTS. 99

foliage, not only suffer, but frequently perish in conse-
quence of their privation. Were it otherwise, the gra-
zing cattle would destroy the verdure of the pastures,
which they now contribute to beautify and adorn, by
rendering the turf more compact and close. Fibrous
roots sometimes creep extensively under the surface
of the earth, whereby their opportunities of receiving-
sustenance, as well as their tenacity of life, are much-
increased. Sometimes they are remarkably downy,
which also secures the double object, of a firm attach-
ment to the ground, and a rapid absorption of its fluids
It will be recollected that these downy fibres, are but
extensions of those vessels, through which the sap is
conveyed from the root to the leaf; and observation
lias taught us, that they are appropriated to those grass-
es, which inhabit barren plains, where other plants
would be unable to exist. The sandy shores of Hol-
land, once as much disturbed by the winds as the
waves they enclose, have, through the agency of these
roots, been converted into a fertile soil, which furnish-
es the inhabitants of the low lands with the fruits of the
earth, and fDrms an effectual barrier against the waters
of the ocean.

The fibres of some parasitical plants. " are peculiar-
ly thick and fleshy, not only for the purpose of imbib-
ing more nourishment, but also to bind them so strong
ly to the branches of trees, as to defy the force of winds
upon their large and rigid leaves."*

The roots by which trees and shrubs are supported,
appear to be merely elongations of their stems, subdi-
vided into numerous branches, and terminating in mi-
nute radicles or absorbents. These extremities re-

ith.

100 THE ROOT.

semble the fibrous roots of grasses, and are subservi-
ent to precisely the same ends, for the main body as
well as its large branches, serve only to convey to-
wards the leaf, the nourishment, which its minute ex-
tremities have derived from the earth. Like the stem
to which it is attached, the former is composed of con-
centric circles corresponding to the age of the tree, and
contains the same vessels which pervade the other
parts of the vegetable texture ; but the extreme radi-
cles are always of annual growth, and the delicacy of
their texture, renders it difficult to transplant vegeta-
bles after they are formed. The proper period there-
fore to remove trees and shrubs, is late in autumn, af-
ter the radicles have ceased to absorb moisture from
the earth, or in the spring, before a new system of ab-
sorbents is formed. It may be done with safety in
mid-winter, when the whole energies of the vegetable
are torpid, but during the season of vegetation, which
requires the constant abstraction of nutriment from the
earth, it is a work of more difficulty and danger. The
analogy between the ascending stem and the branch-
ing root, is more close, and better established, than at
first view, we should be prepared to expect ; and
their only difference is derived from the different or-
gans with which they are connected. This is estab-
lished by an experiment which has frequently been
performed, and may without difficulty be repeated.
V shrub was bent to the horizon in such a manner that
half of its branches were covered with earth, and a
similar proportion of its roots were exposed to the ac-
tion of air and light, without any protection but that of
a thin coat of Moss, which was removed in a few days.
In this position the shrub remained for a considerable
while, after which, the remainder of the stem was bu-

ABRUPT ROOTS. 101

ned l>eneath, and the whole root raised above the sur-
face of the ground. Thus reversed, it continued to
grow, the former roots being crowned with leaves, and
in a few years decorated with flower?, while the former
branches put forth radical fibres, whereby the shrub
derived its nourishment from the earth.

It is obvious that when a plant is thus reversed, the
course of its fluids must be changed, for the sap still
continues to ascend through the wood, and the cambi-
um to descend through the vessels of the bark ; though
according to the observations of Mr. Knight, the new
wood is deposited above the leaf-buds, and not as in
ordinary vegetation below them. In this case it is prob-
able that the plant retains a portion of its original dis-
position, which however, gradually wears away with
age, and at last the fluids circulate, and the plant grow?
exactly as in its natural position,

If any one will take the pains to examine the roots
of many of our native Violets, he will find that they
terminate abruptly, appearing as if they had been bit-
ten or broken off ; and he will then have a correct
idea of the abrupt root, which is by no means peculiar
to the Violets. An English plant, furnished with a
similar root, is termed DeviVs-bit ; and from an old
writer whose name is recalled by some of the most
beautiful of our late flowers,* we learn why it bears
so singular an appellation. He says upon the authority
of" old fantasticke charmers, that the divel did bite it
for envie, because it is an herbe that hath so many
good vertues and is so beneficial to mankinde." Un-
fortunately for the patients of the present day, the en-

* Gerardia, dedicated to the memory of Gerard, whos
< monunjentof his industry and zeal.

• JO

102 THE ROOT.

vious spirit of the devil has been so much gratified as
to leave in the remainder of the herb, no healing vir-
tue for them.

Bulbs are by some writers classed with roots, while
others regard them as an interesting variety of subter-
ranean bud. Certain it is, that they enclose the em-
bryo of future plants, till the period of their evolution
arrives, and in this respect they perform the office of
buds. Many of them are also composed of concentric
scales, nearly allied to those which secure the tender
leaves and flowers of northern trees, from the cold of the
winter to which they are exposed. But it is equally true
that they bear a close analogy to the tuberous root, and
whatever opinions we adopt respecting their nature
and rank, whether we class them with roots or with
buds, the plants to which they are attached will always
be regarded with peculiar interest. They are amongst
the earliest harbingers of spring, and certainly the mo=t
splendid ornaments of the garden. Among them are
the Lily, Snowdrop, Tulip, Hyacinth, with about forty
mere interesting plants, equally deserving the fostering
care of the cultivator. While examining the internal
arrangement of these roots even at mid-winter, we can-
not fail to observe with what care the plants of another
reason, already conspicuous and perfect, are preserved
from injury. From their inferior surface, radicles
descend into the earth, which like the fibrous extremi-
ties of other roots, are designed for the immediate ab-
sorption of nourishment. The bulbs are evidently
designed to preserve the living powers of the plant,
and to supply it with sustenance when its other resour-
ces are exhausted. Their structure would lead to this
opinion, and their habits wou^d confirm it. Thus the
root of the common Herds gra«. Phleum pratcuse.

BULBOUS ROOTS, iOJ

when growing in pastures that are uniformly moist ;
is merely fibrous, but in dry situations, or such as are
occasionally wet, it becomes bulbous, and thus secures
a store of nutriment by which its vital powers are sup-
ported, while the fibrous roots are deprived of their
usual supplies. If once more transferred to a soil uni-
formly and thoroughly moist, it again becomes fibrous
and resumes its former luxuriant growth. In this case
it has been supposed that " the herb being in the first
instance starved, by a failure* of the nutrimental fluids
hitherto conveyed by the water of the soil, its growth
would be checked, and when checked, the same growth
could not, as we know by observation on vegetation in
general, be instantaneously renewed. A sudden fresh
supply of food would therefore cause an accumulation
of vital energy in the root, which would consequently
assume a degree of vigour and a luxuriant mode of
growth not natural to it, and become bulbous. Thus
it acquires a resource against such checks in future, and
the herb is preserved alive, though in a very far less
luxuriant state than when regularly and uniformy fur-
nished with its requisite nourishment."* And accord-
ingly we see that those plants which in their native situa-
tion find only a precarious supply of water, are suppli-
ed with bulbous roots for their preservation. Like
the thick-leaved plants, many of them were brought
from Africa, and their texture is happily designed to
encounter the privations of those countries which they
are intended to adorn.

Nearly allied to bulbs are the tuberous roots which
consist of a single knob, or of several, connected by in-
tervening radicles. These knobs preserve the vital
energy as well as the nutritive fluids which they re

* Smith

104 THE ROOT.

ceive from the leaves of their respective plants, till
the former is aroused into action, and the latter are de-
manded for use. Like that ofthe alburnum their growth
depends on the renovated sap, which has passed and
repassed through the vessels of the stem. We see
therefore the intimate connexion betwixt the leaf and
the root, and perceive why the luxuriance ofthe one
should indicate the comparative size and fruitfulneas of
the other.

Bulbous and tuberous plants are usually propagated
by separating their roots, and this is the easiest, but
not in all cases the most eligible mode of cultivation.
When it is pursued, the roots are to be transplanted
either in autumn or spring, for at these seasons having
no radical fibres to connect them with the earth, their
removal does not impede the process of vegetation.
There is an exception to this rule, which it would not
be deemed necessary to mention, if it did not relate to
some ofthe most interesting of our native plants. — The
Orchis, and others of the same natural order, have
been named as furnishing examples of the palmate or
bituberous root. These roots are usually biennial,
the oldest portion, bearing the herb and flower of the
present season, while its young companion is preparing
to succeed it, and to produce the leaves and flowers of
another year. When the plant is in full bloom, it may
be removed with entire safety, for at this time the ra-
dical fibres of the youngest bulb are not formed, and
consequently it has no necessary connection with the
earth. After this however, as the flower fades, the
oldest portion of the root decays and then new fibres
are formed, (and the other bulb) which are to supply
the plant with nourishment until it blooms again, and
these fibres are in all cases an insuperable barrier to

ROOTS OF THE ORCHIS. 105

removal. Still more difficult is it to transplant others
of this family which have three pairs of these bulbs that
flower in succession, and it is probable that such plants
have never been removed except in connexion with
their native earth.*

" If a pair of these knobs is"separated, and then immer-
sed in water, the one will be found to sink and the oth-
er to swim. This is a phenomenon that seems to
have puzzled the simplists of antiquity not a little ; and
to have given rise to many idle and superstitious con-
jectures. It was thought that the knob that swims
must necessarily have possessed some peculiar and po-
tent properties, and accordingly some potent properties
were very liberally ascribed to it. If prepared in a
particular manner and worn about any one's person, it
was believed to have the singular property of exciting,
by means of proper management, a violent attachment
to the wearer in the breast of any one he pleased. And
this belief is still a vulgar error among the ignorant and
superstitious ; though the sinking of the one knob, and
the swimming of the other, have been accounted for
from the regular operation of natural causes, and the
mystery and magic charm of the phenomenon altogether
dissolved.

From the swimming knob which was generated in
the course of the preceding year, the plant of the pres-
ent year, together with the sinking knob, has sprung ;
but by this means the substance of the first has become
exhausted, and specifically lighter than water, and on
this account it swims. The other which is still firm

* Dr. Smith observes, that they have " not been found to sur-
vive transplantation, " but it has been stated in reply, that inclos-
ed in a ball of their original earth, they may be removed with
safety, and that the experience of Scotch gardeners has demon**
strated the truth of the latter assertion.

106 THE ROOT.

and solid, is of course specifically heavier than the
water, and on this account it sinks ; but in the succeed-
ing year it also will produce a new plant aad knob, and
being itself exhausted it will swim, and fade and decay
in its turn."*

With respect to direction, roots exhibit some vari-
ations worthy of our attention. The spindle shaped
are generally perpendicular, gradually tapering as they
proceed downwards, but the fibrous and branching roots
are more frequently horizontal, sometimes near the
surface, and sometimes deep in the earth, accommo-
dating themselves to the climate and soil in which they
grow. An experiment has often been made of planting
seed in sand over a bed of rich earth, and it is found
that the root descends several inches below its usual
situation, apparently in search of the more congenial
soil beneath it. Wildenow placed a Strawberry plant
in some sand close to the rich soil of a garden, and it
exhibited some evidence of the same selective proper-
ty, by growing towards the good soil in which it conti-'
nued to flourish long after the main plant had decayed.
A more singular case has recently occurred in Scotland.
A seed of the Plane tree was accidentally deposited on
the ruinous wall of a monastery in Galloway, where it
germinated, and the young tree grew for a while with
considerable luxuriance, though the wall on which it
stood was ten feet from the ground. Its small store of
nourishment was soon exhausted, and the young tree
ceased to grow, but as if it had perceived the rich sup-
ply of food at the bottom of the wall, it sent down some
strong fibres which soon reached the earth. When
these roots had become attached to the surrounding soil
so as to supply the young tree with nourishment, it
* Keith

DESCENT OF THE ROOTS. 107

again began to grow, and continued to flourish till it
was blown over by the wind. Those who observed
the singular situation of this tree, and marked its very
unusual progress, have attempted to explain by what
law of nature, or by what perceptive power inherent
in the plant itself, the descent of its roots, so necessary
in this situation, was produced.

Some have inferred that the young tree perceived the
store of food at the bottom of the wall, and like Israel
of old, sent its messengers to a distance, to avoid the
famine by which it was threatened. Others have refer-
red it to that general law of nature, by which all roots
descend towards the centre of the earth, until they
meet with resistance ; and those who have observed
the descent of the radical fibres of Hyacinths, when
growing in pure water, will be inclined to adopt the
latter opinion. But still they will admire that wonder-
ful provision, by which a Plane tree, on a high wall in
Galloway, would provide for its own security, as suc-
cessfully, as- if it had been blessed with an ordinary
share of human intelligence. And with respect to the
experiment of Wildenow, it has been justly observed,
that the Strawberry plant advanced towards the rich
soil in its neighbourhood, because in that direction, it
met with a better supply of nourishment, for the rad-
ical fibres thus situated, grew luxuriantly, while those
which remained in the sand, soon perished from the
want of sustenance.

It seems almost unnecessary to observe, that roots
are situated beneath the surface of the ground, but to
this rule Parasitic plants furnish us with an exception.
They either derive their nourishment from the air, or
in the true spirit of prodigality, subsist on the resour-
ces of their neighbours, to which, in various ways they

108 THE ROOT.

closely adhere. The Lichens which cover the epider-
mis of many trees, the Blight which destroys the fruit,
and the Beech drops which are attached to the roots of
the tree whose name they hear, are all examples of
parasitic plants.

The seed of Dodder or Love-vine, easily recognized
by the golden hue of its threadlike and leafless stems,
first germinates in the earth, and as its plumelet rises,
it seizes upon the first plant in its vicinity, sends forth
fibres which penetrate the bark of its supporter, after
which the root and lower part of the stem die, leav-
ing the vine to derive its sustenance entirely from the
plant to which it adheres. Others of this class are
never found on the earth, but their seeds are deposi-
ted on living trees, where they germinate and grow.
The Spanish Beard is found loosely attached to the for-
est trees of the South, to which it has been observed
by travellers to communicate a melancholy aspect.
This plant was named Tillandsiaby Linnaeus, "for it
brought to his mind the fate of the student, who in
going by sea from Stockholm to Abo, experienced so
severely the terrors of the deep, that he chose to
walk back, rather than again trust himself to so cruel a
deity as Neptune." This was Tillands, afterwards
professor of Botany at Abo, and Linnaeus named in hon-
or of its prototype, this plant of tropical America,
which cannot endure water.*

The sacred Misletoe, once venerated for its all-heal-
ing virtues, is another example. It never grows on
the earth, and probably the observance of this fact, in-
spired the superstitious Druid with a belief, that it was

" Lapland Tour.

roots. iuy

the immediate gift of Heaven, sent down to avert the
calamities to which he was exposed.

The observations of Duhamel, respecting the germi-
nation of this singular parasite, have been formerly no-
ticed. Equally interesting are the experimerts of De-
candolle, instituted in order to ascertain the nature of
its connexion with the trees on which it is found, and
the degree of energy with which it absorbs their fluids
According to that learned naturalist, if a branch of the
Apple tree to which the Misletoe is united, be intro
duced into coloured water, the latter becomes tinged
even brighter than the portion of tree to which it ad-
heres. By a reversion of this experiment, he found
that the coloured fluid descended through the stem of
the parasite, tinged its radical fibres, and penetrated to
the wood of its supporter. His next object was to as-
certain if the leaves of the Misletoe, like those of oth-
er plants, had the faculty of elevating the sap through
its stems, and he found that they increased this faculty
in a six fold degree.*

The last object of Decandolle, was to determine
whether fluids were absorbed with the greatest rapidi-
ty, when they passed through a portion of the support-
ing tree, or immediately into the stem of the shrub, and
it appeared that in the latter case, unless the branch is
uncommonly vigorous, no fluids are absorbed.

Fruit trees are frequently invested with a minute
tribe of parasitic plants, which are regarded as a sign of
old age and decay. The experiments of Decandolle
teach in what way they may prove destructive, and

* The experiments were these ; two stems of nearly equal size,
one naked and the other leafy, were introduced into tubes filled
with water, closed, and sealed at their superior extremity, and
having their bases plunged into mercury. The elevation of the
mercury denoted the ratio of their absorption,
11

H© THE ROO:.

point to the most effectual mode of preservation. Lei
the trees "mossed with age" be divested of those veg-
etables which rob them of their nourishment, and has-
ten their destruction, and they will recover their for-
mer health and again become vigorous and productive.
But there is a class of parasitic vegetables, whose
roots do not abstract nourishment from their support-
ers. One of the most extraordinary of these is the
Epidendrum, or Flower ofthe Air, which grows abun-
dantly on the banks of the Ganges. It is said to vege-
ate for years, hung upon the ceiling of the Indian's
cottage, with no other nourishment than what it derives
from the air ofthe room, to which its blossoms commu-
nicate a most delightful fragrance.

All these varieties of roots are formed to secure the
same end, to fix the plant securely in the earth, to sup-
ply it with food, and to preserve its vital though dor-
mant energies, at a season when they could not be safe-
ly aroused into action ; and at the same time, to secure
its resources against the vicissitudes of moisture and
dryness, to which the vegetables of many countries are
perpetually exposed. And a small share of attention
to the structure and form of each variety, will enable
us to pursue the best mode of cultivation, and to desig-
nate the quality ofthe soil to which they are respec-
tively suited. Of those which descend deep into the
earth, there are several varieties, and all require to
have the ground deeply furrowed, before they can be
cultivated with advantage. Barren and thin soils are
best suited to the wide spreading roots, which creep
extensively on their surface ; dry and sandy plains are
adapted to those which penetrate deep for nourish-
ment ; and are supplied with bulbs for its preserva-
tion, or with downy radicles for its abundant absorp- -

ROOTS. Ill

iion. No one can advantageously introduce a new
plant, till by the examination of its various organs, he
has learned to what situation it is best adapted, nor can
he be a successful florist, who is not at the same (im^
fin observing botanist.

CHAPTER VIII.

TRUNKS.

A knowledge of the various kinds of stalks by which

he herbage is elevated above the surface of the earth

is often of great practical utility, for these varieties are

the basis of botanical distinctions, always convenient

rind sometimes indespensable.

1. STEM.— This term is strictly confined to that
iniversal trunk, which sustains leaves, flowers and
fruit ; being herbaceous in most annual stems, and
.voody in trees and shrubs. In the White Lily, it is
simple and undivided, but in most vegetables, it is
branched, and the arrangement which its branches as-
sume, gives to every plant its peculiar habit and form.

With respect to Direction and mode of growth, the
•*tem is erect as in Sun-flower ; procumbent or trailing
on the ground, as in Moss Pink, Phlox subulata and
Carpet weed ; repent or creeping when it trails on the
earth, emitting radical fibres from its inferior surface,
as in Trailing Arbutus and Creeping Crowfoot, Ranun-
culus repens ; reclined when the superior extremity
of an erect stem is bent down so as to form an arch
with the horizon, as in Raspberry ; ascending when
the extremity of a procumbent stem is erect. When
a creeping stem sends out roots only from its joints,
as in Strawberry, it is termed sarmentose. Weak stems
frequently attach themselves to other bodies for sup-
port. The Vine and the Passion flower, Fig 20, climb
by their spiral tendrils, and the common creeper by its
radiating fibres. The last is properly a radicant or

STEM. 113

rooting stem, Fig. 18. It sends out numerous fibres
which penetrate, but derive no nourishment from the
plant to which it adheres. The Poison Ivy, Rhus
radicans, is a good example of this variety. The
Voluble stem twines around other plants for support,
and if it follows the apparent motion of the Sun, as in
the Honeysuckles, Fig. 19, it is said to twine from left
to right, and from right to left, when as in Bindweed
Convolvulus Septum, it pursues the opposite direction.
Some stems are straight as in the Lily ; some diffuse,
having irregular spreading branches ; and some are
flexucse or zigzag, forming obtuse angles at every joint,
as in various species o! Smilax or Green-Briar. When
a stem is regularly and repeatedly divided into pairs,
Fig. 16, as in common Chickweed, and Stramonium, it
is said to be dichotomous or forked.

With respect to Form, the stem is usually terete or
round ; sometimes it is compressed, having its two opposite
sides flattened ; and sometimes it is ancipital, or two
edged, forming two opposite and acute angles, as in the
Blue-eyed Grass. In other cases it is triangular,
square, or pentangular, but these terms require no ex-
planation. When the angles of a stem are extended
into a flat leafy border, as in the Sweet Pea and many
of the Thistles, it is said to be winged, but sometimes a
decurrent leaf causes the stem to appear winged when
in reality it is not.

The Branches of a stem are alternate, when be-
tween two on one side there arises an opposite and
intermediate branch ; and they are opposite, when
two branches arise at equal distances from the base
of a stem. When opposite branches alternately
cross each other at right angles, as in the Lilac, they
are said to be brachiate or decussate. When several

* n

114 TRUNKS.

branches arise from a common stem at the same dis-
tance from its base, as in the Spruce and White Pine,
they are termed verticillate. When the terminal buds
produce flowers only, and the lateral ones leaves and
branches, the stem is said to be abruptly branched.
*The American Honeysuckle, Fig. 17 is an example,
and it is easy to tell how many times it has produced
flowers, by ascertaining the number of its abrupt or
determinate subdivisions. They are distichous, when
the branches arise promiscuously from all parts of the
stem, and spread only in two directions as in the Hem-
lock tree and Silver-Fir, and they are fash 'giate, when
the branches arising from different parts of the stem,
terminate at equal distances from the ground.

In some plants the branches are few and scattered,
in others they are crowded, so as almost to conceal the
stem.

When the extremities of the branches are inclined
towards the main stem they are compact ; when extend,
mg in a horizontal direction, they are diverging ; and
when they form an obtuse angle with the superior por-
tion of the stem, they are divaricate. Some branches
are erect, as in the Lombardy Poplar ; others are pen-
dant, as in the Weeping Willow and Elm, and their stems
are said to be reflected.

When a stem is occasionally intercepted by knots, as
in the Garden Pink, it is said to be jointed ; but if these
joints are much contracted, as in some species of Cactus,
Fig. 25, the stem is articulated ; when the firm texture
of the exterior portion extends to the centre, it is solid;
when filled with pith, it is termed pithy ; and when it
forms a complete cavity, it is fistulous, or hollow.
Plants whose leaves and flowers spring immediately
from the ground, Fig. 22, are termed stemless, and the

BRANCHES. 115

Dandelion and many of the Violets, furnish us with ex-
amples. The latter being allied to other species, that
are furnished with stems are said from occasional lux-
uriance, to assume the character of their allies, but the
former remains stemless in every situation.

Stems are usually garnished with leaves, and termed
leafy ; and occasionally beset with scales, and termed
scaly, Fig. 21 ; but in a few instances, having neither
leaves nor scales, they are said to be naked, as in Dod-
der and Glasswort. In the latter case the succulent
stem supplies the place of leaves ; in the former the
living vegetable to which it clings, furnishes the para-
site with food, already prepared for its own nourish-
ment.

The student who examines these forms, will not fail
to observe the various sizes of stems, some being slen-
der and uniesisting, others large and powerful. He
will notice without the aid of botany, the magnitude of
the Oak, the majestic form of the Elm, and the towering
height of the Tulip tree, and as he compares them with
those humble herbs that scarcely raise themselves a-
bove the surface of the ground, he will see how man-
nifold are the productions, which he is to examine.
But in southern latitudes, we find trees more majestic
than the Elm, and more lofty than the Tulip tree j for
there, vegetation is more rapid, and new organs are de-
veloped without interruption.

The Adansonia which grows on the banks of the
Senegal in Africa, is said to be thirty feet in diameter,
and to require a chain six rods in length to enclose it.
— Its branches spread sixty feet in every direction,
and when excavated by old age and decay, its hollow
trunk becomes the abode of several families.

A still more singular stem is presented by the Rhi-

116 TRUNKS.

zophora, which grows within the tropics of A9ia and
America. It sends forth its numberless branches which
descend perpendicularly to the ground, where they
take root. From these, other branches arise and pur-
sue the same course, as if to extend the dominion of
the tree from which they all originate, and at last it
covers the country for a mile around, with a forest of
numberless branches, having the appearance of a close
clipped bower.*

Those who have observed the progress of the vege-
table growth, and seen trees of various sizes produ-
ced by the annual deposition of a thin layer of wood ; will
be prepared to find a correspondence between the magni-
tude and age of the stems they examine. And unless the
growth has been particularly rapid, this may be consider-
ed as a correct criterion, for the Oaks and the Elms are
among the oldest of our forest trees, and the Adansonia
is probably not merely the largest, but the oldest
vegetable in existence. Indeed, the only limit to
the growth of woody stems, is found in their per-
ishable nature, which prevents them from retaining,
beyond a limited period, strength sufficient to support
their own weight. The centre or heart wood being
dead, will in the course of a few centuries at least, be-
gin to decay, but at the same time, new layers of albur-
num are deposited as before. The progress of decay
is more rapid than that of renovation, and at last, the
hollow trunk being unable to support its own branches,
is precipitated to the ground by their growing weight,
or overturued by the winds, which it ha* buffeted prob-
ably for ages. The durability of the perfect wood, and
the strength of the alburnum, must therefore deter-
mine the age to which any tree can arrive.
* Wildenow.

TEXTURE OF STEiiS. 117

We have noticed the articulated stem of the Cactus.
from the summit of which, new branches arise, readily
distinguished by the intervening and contracted joints,
and furnishing an example of the proliferous stem. —
These are mostly tropical plants, though one species
occurs frequently in New-England, and others thrive
on the banks of the Missouri. Destitute of leaves,
they are beset with rigid spines, and form, when prop-
erly arranged, an impenetrable hedge ; but in spite of
their armature, the wild antelope of the plains, nnds
means to render the-n subservient to its wants. *

The arrangement presented by the transverse sec-
tion of a woody stem, the annual layers, the silver
grain by which they are intersected, the vessels through
which the fluids pass, and the cellular texture which
binds them together, rendering the whole solid and
compact, have been already noticed. The arrange-
ment presented to our view, by the transverse section
of annual stems is somewhat different, their cellular
texture being more abundant, and the vessels through
which the sap passes being variously arranged, but as-
suming in each plant a determinate form, peculiar to its
tfihe A transverse section of the Date Palm, exhib-
its ■ over the whole surface, a great number of black
spots, dispersed without any regular order, upon a
white ground, larger in the centre and smaller in the cir=
umference. but the largest not being more than the
r hird of a line in diameter. These spots are tLe divi-
ded extremities of bundles of longitudinal nbres, pass-
ing from the base to the summit of the stem, in a di-
rection parallel to its axis. v t Such is the arrangement
presented not merely by the Date Palm, but by an ex-

* Xuttall. • Keith.

118 TRUNKS.

tensive tribe of plants, easily recognized by their pe-
culiar features, and furnishing, by their solitary seed
lobes, a discriminate character on which the botanist
chiefly relies.

No forest trees are more lofty than the Palms, and
few attain a greater age ; yet they are regarded as pe-
rennial herbaceous plants, and exhibit the same inter-
nal structure. Their leaves spring immediately from
he ground, and those which are most recent, being
interior to the others, must of course rise above them,
before they are unfolded. When one system of these
leaves has performed its office, another appears above
it, and thus its power of lateral extension being limited
by the exterior and old bundles of leaf-stalks, all the
energies of the plant are directed to the elongation of
its stem ; which being unbranched and very lofty, gives
a peculiar cast to the scenery of those countries in
which the Palm trees abound. In northern latitudes
they never occur, but the White Lily, which belongs
to the same natural division of plants, may serve to elu-
cidate this subject. " Its stems, though of only an-
nual duration, are formed nearly on the same principle
as that of the Palm, and are really congeries of leaves,
rising one above another, and united by their bases in-
to an apparent stem."*

2. CULM. — This term is applied to the stems of grass-
es and grass-like plants. They are usually tubular and
jointed, the joints being larger than the intervening
straws, and interrupting the continuity of the cavity
which vhey form.

W T hen they form an angle at each of the joints, they
are termed geniculate, as in the Bent and White top,

* Smith.

CULM. 11^

Jlgrostis alba; but when radical fibres are emitted
from these joints, and attach themselves to the earth,
as in the Fiorin grass, Agrostis stolonifera, the culm is
said to be stoloniferous. Compared with other stems,
these are more frequently triangular, jointed, and hol-
low, and in this climate, they are almost without ex-
ception, of annual duration.

The flint which axists in the stems of grasses, and
thpir consequent utility in the arts, has been formerly
noticed. The primary design of this deposition, is
probably to secure the flower and the seed from de-
struction, for while animals greedily devour the her-
bage of grasses, they leave the culm and consequently
the seed unmolested.

From the Leghorn straw, hats of a most durable kind
are made, and recently, one of the most common of our
grasses, has been made subservient to the same useful
purposes.

In northern countries, grasses are never large, being
always destroyed at the approach of winter, but as we
proceed towards the equator, they attain to a greater
size and a greater age. There we find the useful Cane
and the still more lofty Reed, both surpassed by an
Asiatic grass, Panicum arborescent whose culm we are
told, is sometimes eighty or an hundred feet in length.*

The peculiar stem of the Palm tree was formerly re-
garded as a distinct variety, and denominated Stipe, but
as the term has been restricted to other organs and other
plants, there is no reason why it should retain a place
in this chapter. The peculiar stalks of leaves and
flowers are rather to be regarded as appendages, an^
as such they will be described.

* Barton's Elements.

CHAPTER IX.

LEAVES.

Leaves are membraneous or succulent organs, usu-
ally of a green colour, arising immediately from the
root, or attached to the stem and its branches. The
point by which a leaf is attached to the plant is
termed its base, the opposite extremity is the summit,
the intermediate portion of the leaf is its expansion,
and the boundary of the expansion is its margin. The
superior surface is more even, and usually of a deeper
green ; and the other exhibits more prominently the
fibres of the diverging vessels.

PETIOLE.— The base is frequently prolonged into
a footstalk or Petiole, by which the leaf is removed
to a greater or less distance from the place of its
attachment. The leaf stalk of the Vine is nearly
cylindrical, but we more frequently find its superior
surface compressed or channelled, and this circum-
stance will enable the student to distinguish the foot
stalks of compound leaves, from the young branches
with which, without regarding this distinction, he
would be liable to confound them. The interesting
St. Pierre, has with his usual ingenuity, attempted to
prove, that the channel of the petiole is designed to
convey the water which falls on the leaves, towards
the roots of their respective plants. He even says
that the form and capacity of this groove, will indicate
the quantity of moisture which any individual plant

POSITION 12»j

may require, and his hypothesis is supported by many
plausible arguments. The motion of the trembling
Aspen, when every thing around it is quiet and at rest,
has caught the attention of many an observing eye.
The leaves of this and other species of Poplar, have
their petioles so compressed, as to admit of a lateral
tremulous motion when exposed to the slightest breath
of air.

We discriminate between the Orange and the Lemon
by the winged leaf stalk of the former, and it is not
merely a convenient but a necessary mark of distinc-
tion.

The petiole of the Grasses forms an entire sheath,
(vagina,) and the late Dr. Muhlenburg in his Grasses
of America, has rarely failed to describe it under the
latter denomination.

The leaf-stalks of the common Pea terminate in a
tendril, and those of the Traveller's Joy, Clematis Vir-
ginica, perform the office of tendrils, by twining like
them around their supporters.

The continuation of the petiole through the leaf is
termed its midrib, and its various ramifications, which
are most conspicuous on the under surface, constitute
the nerves and veins.

In the examination of leaves we are to learn their
different positions and modes of insertion, as well a?
the varieties of form, texture, and surface.

1. POSITION.

Radical Leaves spring immediately from the root>

as in the Dandelion and English Cowslip, Fig. 22.

The leaves of the Stem, sometimes differ from those

of the Branches, and then it is necessary to distinguish
12

122 LEAVES.

them by terms which denote their respective inser-
tions. The flower is sometimes accompanied by leaves
of a different size or shape from the others, and these
are termed Floral leaves. The stalk of Parnassia,
having only a solitary leaf is said to be Unifoliate, and
the Lily of the Valley having two is Bifoliate, but it is
rare to see leaves so few, or their number so invari-
able.

When the petioles are inserted into opposite points
of a stem, as in the Lilac, they are said to be Opposite,
and when they arise successively from the different
sides of a stem, as in the Cherry and Pear trees, they
are said to be Alternate.

Stellate or Verticillate leaves, Fig, 45, grow in a cir-
cle around the stem, as in the common Red Lily, Indian
Cucumber, and Galium.

When several leaves are inserted together as in the
Hackmatack, they are said to be Fascicled or Tufted ;
and Imbricated when they overlap and enclose each
other, like tiles on a house top, as in White Cedar and
Juniper.

When opposite leaves alternately cross each other
at right angles as in Bone-set, they are Decussated.

Distickal or Two-ranked leaves spread in two direc-
tions, as in the Hemlock tree, but if leaves thus dispos-
ed arise from two opposite points of a stem, they are
said to be Bifarious.

Those leaves are Floating, which we see on the
surface of the water, as in Pond Lilies ; those are Im-
mersed which are beneath it, as Water Violet and Valis-
neria ; and those are Emersed, which are seen rising
above its surface.

Some leaves are Oppressed towards the stem, some
Depressed close to the ground, as in the Carpet weed ;

INSERTION.

123

some Erect ; some obliquely Ascending ; some Hori-
zontal ; and some Relining downwards ; but these
are distinctions which are rarely observed.

2. INSERTION.

A Petiolate leaf has a footstalk inserted into its base,
as in the Maple, Poplar and Vine, Figs. 31, 32 and 48.

When the Petiole is inserted into the inferior sur-
face of a leaf, at a greater or less distance from its mar-
gin, it is said to be Peltate, as in Nasturtion and Water
shield, Fig. 27.

A Sessile leaf arises immediately from a stem, branch
or root, without the intervention of a footstalk, as in
the clustered and two leaved Solomon's seal.

Clasping leaves embrace the stem with their base.
as in the New England Aster, and Clasping Bell-flower,

When two opposite leaves are united at their base,
as in Fever-root and Bone-set, they are said to be Con-
nate; and Perfoliate when a stem passes through a
solitary leaf, as in most of the Bell-worts. Fig. 26.

Sometimes we find examples which appear interme
diate between the two preceding, but all necessary pre-
cision is obtained in these cases, by using the term
Connate-perfoliate. To the leaves of the Bone-set
and Chlora perfoliata :•, Fig. 16, such a term is strictly
applicable.

When leaves form a sheath for each other or for the
stem, as in the Iris, and some of the Grasses, they are
said to be Sheathing. In the latter, however, the
sheath is usually an expanded petiole, and not according
to the common acceptation of the term, a portion of the
leaf itself.

When the base of a leaf is extended down the side of

124 LEAVES.

a stem, so as to form a leafy border or wing, it is said
to be Decurrent, and the Mullein, some of the Thistles
and Peas are familiar examples. Fig. 23.

3. FIGURE.

With regard to form, leaves are Simple, as in the
Lilies and Grasses, or they are Compound, as in the
Parsley and Rose. The petiole of the simple leaf
terminates in a single expansion, which is either entire
or divided, but in the latter case the incisions never ex-
tend to the midrib. The footstalks of compound leaves
are more frequently subdivided, and the expansions or
leaflets in which they terminate, are distinguished like
simple leaves by their peculiar form. Of these forms,
the following with annexed examples, are more particu-
larly important.

An Orbicular leaf, whose entire margin is in the cir-
cumference of a circle is of rare occurrence, and
" precise examples are scarcely to be found." When
there is but a slight deviation from this form, leaves
are said to be Subrotund, or roundish, and the Round
leaved Winter green is a good example.

The Ovate or Egg-shaped leaf, Fig. 28, occurs more
frequently, having its base broader than its summit as
in the Periwincle and Sage.

The Obovate is also egg-shaped, but has its summit
broader than its base as in the fragrant Clethra.

The Eliptic or oval leaf, is intermediate between
the two preceding, having its two extremities equally
broad, as in the Lily of the Valley and Water shield.
Fig. 27.

The term Oblong, is somewhat indefinitely applied to
ihose leaves which are several times longer than broad,

FIGURE OF LEAVES. 125

The Spatulate leaf, Fig. 29, so named from its resem-
blance to a well known instrument of the surgeon, has
a round and somewhat broad extremity, with a long
slender base. The Rose Campion and Marsh Rose-
mary are well known examples.

A Cuneate or Wedge shaped leaf, has a broad ex-
tremity tapering to a point at the base as in Carpet
Weed and Purslane.

An oblong leaf tapering towards each extremity, as
in our field Lilies is termed Lanceolate. Fig. 30.

Linear leaves are narrow, having their sides parallel,
as in the common Garden Pink and most Grasses. A
short acute linear leaf, is termed Subulate or Awlshap-
ed, and the Moss Pink is a good example ; very slender
linear leaves are also called setaceous , capillary, or
filiform, from their resemblance to bristles, hair or
thread.

Acrose or Needleshaped leaves are linear, riged,
and generally evergreen, as in the Pines.

A Deltoid or Triangular leaf has three prominent
angles, one of which is formed by its acute summit, as
in the Lombardy Poplar and White Birch.

A Rhomboid or Diamond-shaped leaf has four pro-
minent bat somewhat oblique angles, its opposite sides
being nearly parallel, as in Purple Trellium and Al-
thea.

Other leaves are Angular, as in the Moon-seed and
Colts-foot, but in these cases it is seldom necessary to
ascertain the exact number of angles, nor are they
sufficiently constant to furnish marks of distinction.

The Cordate, or Heart shaped leaf, Fig. 31 occurs fre.

quently, and its figure is well known. When its two lobes

approach each other so as to form an apparent cavity

above, it is then termed Cuculate or hooded, and one
* 12

126 LEAVES.

of our common Violets, Viola cucullata> whose specific
name alludes to this circumstance, will serve as an ex-
ample. When the petiole 13 inserted into the pointed
extremity of a heart shaped leaf, it is said to be obcor-
date, as in the Wood sorrel, Fig. 42, though the equiv-
alent term, inversely heart-shaped, is frequently em-
ployed.

A Reniform or kidney shaped leaf has a rounded ex*
tremity, and usually a circular excavation at its base,
as in Canada Snake- root and Gill. Fig. 32.

The Crescent form, of rare occurrence, and happily
illustrated by a reference to the figure of the new
moon, may have its stem inserted into the concave or
opposite portion.

The Arrow shaped or Sagittate leaf, Fig. 34, has
two lobes projecting from its base, one on each side of
the petiole to which they are nearly parallel, as in Ar-
row-head and Scratch -grass Polygonum sagittatum.

The Halbert or Hastate leaf, Fig. 33, has also two
projecting lobes, which are nearly at right angles with
the leaf stalk, as in Sorrel, and Polygonum hastatum.
By Wildenow the Auricled leaf is regarded as a pe-
culiar variety of the hastate, having its lobes smaller
and round, but Dr. Smith speaks of them as the two
lateral leaflets, liable occasionally to be united to the
terminal one of a compound leaf. Wildenow's appli-
cation of the term is most usually adopted.

A leaf is Unequal, Fig. 35, when the midrib does not
divide it into two equal portions. Such are the leaves
of the Elm and Lime trees, which last are also describ-
ed as Oblique.

The leaves of a stem not unfrequently present a dif-
ferent form from those of the branches, and sometimes
they are different on the same branch or stem. The

FIGURE OF LEAVES. 12?

Chinese Mulberry is a very striking example of thi~
diversity, having scarcely two leaves of the same form.
Students should be aware of this, or they will not un-
derstand why the Leaves of the Sassafras are describ-
ed as ovate and lobed, while those of the Moon-seed
are cordate and angular.

The following varieties of simple leaves are divided
by incisures, more or less deep, into several lobes or
segments, forming a connecting link between the en-
tire and the compound leaves.

In the Sinuate of Scolloped leaf, Fig. 36, these in-
cisures are curved, and the segments are either round-
ed or acute. The Oaks furnish us with numerous ex
am pies.

A Runcinate leaf Fig. 37, is cut into numerous trans-
verse acute segments, which point towards its base as
in the Dandelion.

The segments of a Lyrate leaf are transverse, the
terminal one being rounded and much larger than the
others. It occurs in the wild and cultivated Radish.

The Palmate leaf, Fig. 38, so named from its re-
semblance to the open hand, has five or seven project-
ing segments or fingers ; as in the Castor-Oil plant and
Blue Passion flower.

The Lobed leaf, Fig. 39, has curved or rounded seg-
ments, with incisures less deep than in the succeeding
variety. The Noble Liverwort and Sassafras are good
examples.

The Cleft leaf has straight incisures and segments ter-
minating acutely ; and the Parted has incisures extend-
ing very nearly to its base. Fig. 40. The Cranes-
bill will serve to exemplify each variety.

In using these terms, it is oft^n necessary to express
the number of lobes or segments, and hence we have

128 LEAVES.

trilobate or three-lobed, trifid or three-cleft, and mul-
tifid, or many-cleft.

Laciniate leaves are irregularly divided into numer-
ous lobes or segments. In consequence of their ir-
regular and indeterminate form, they are also called
jagged or incised.

It has been observed that those submersed leaves
which are exposed to the action of running water, are
frequently subdivided, while those which float on its
quiet surface are large and entire.

Pinnatifid leaves, Fig. 41, are transversly divided
into several oblong, parallel segments, which are grad-
ually smaller, as we proceed from the base to the sum-
mit of their respective leaves. When these segments
are also transversely divided, as in Yarrow, the leaf is
said to be Bipinnatifid. When these segments are ex-
tremely narrow, and like comb teeth, the leaf is term-
ed Pectinate.

4. COMPOSITION.

A Compound leaf is Digitate, when several leaflets
arise from the summit of a simple petiole, as in the
Horse Chesnut, and Hemp.

It is Binate or Conjugate, when the number of these
leaflets is two ; if they are three, as in the Clover and
Strawberry, it is Ternate, Fig. 42, and if they are five
as in Five finger, it is Quinate.

It is Pinnate, Fig. 43, if several leaflets arise from
the side of a petiole, as in the Rose and Sensitive plants.
In the first there is an oJd or terminal leaflet, in the
last there is none, and the Rose is said to be oddly, and
the Sensitive abruptly pinnate. These leaflets are
sometimes opposite and sometimes alternate, and hence

MARGIN OF LEAVES. 129

we find leaves, alternately or oppositely pinnate. If
these leaflets alternate with others of a smaller size,
as in Agrimony, the leaf is interruptedly pinnate. Fig. 44.

When a leaf atalk is divided, and the leaflets arise
only from the superior side of its two branches, the
leaf is said to be Pedate, Fig. 46, Viola pedata and
Arum dracontium are examples.

When a petiole is divided, and each division supports
a compound leaflet, it is said to be Decompound. Such
leaves are usually Biternate, Fig. 50, or Bipinnate.

When the secondary branches of a petiole support
compound leaflets, it is said to be Thrice compound, and
if the leaflets are ternate, as in Panax trifolium, the
leaf is thrice ternate.

5. SUMMIT.

The Summit of leaves is Acute, as in the Willows,
or Acuminate being still more slender and pointed, as
in the Lombardy Poplar, or it is obtuse as in the round,
ovate and wedge shaped leaves, which terminate in the
segment of a circle.

The Truncate leaf terminates abruptly, as if its ex-
tremity had been removed by a transverse incision ;
and the Tulip tree, Fig. 48, is a good example.

If the extremity of a leaf is tipped with a bristle-like
point, as in Marsh Rosemary, it is said to be Mucron-
ate, and if it is tipped with a tendril it is Cirrhose.

If it has a small acute notch at its summit, it is Emar-
ginate, but if the notch be broad and shallow it is
Retuse.

6. MARGIN.

The margin of leaves i9 Entire, as in Lilies ; Spinous

130 LEAVES.

or beset with prickles, as in the Holly and Thistle :
Ciliate or fringed like the eye lashes, as in Moss Pink j
and Dentate or beset with numerous distant teeth, as
in the Arrow-wood, Viburnum dentatum. The leaves
of the Beech tree are both Ciliate and Dentate. Ser-
rate leaves are beset with teeth like a saw, all of which
point toward their summits. The Rose, Apple and
Peach leaves are examples.

Crenate leaves are like the edge of a common dining
plate, having rounded projections inclining to neither
extremity, as in Penny wort and Gill. Fig. 32.

When the teeth or projections are very minute, the
terms Denticulate, Serrulate and Crenulate are employed.

When the projections of a serrate leaf are beset with
minute serratures, it becomes Doubly -serrate, and
the same rule is extended to the dentate and crenate
leaves.

A Repand leaf, Fig 47, is bordered by numerous an-
gles, which appear as if formed by the excision of a
small segment of a circle.

Sometimes a leaf appears as if it had been irregularly
cut, notched or eaten, and then it is termed Erose.

When the margin is rolled backwards a leaf is said
to be Revolute, and Involute when its border is turned
towards its superior surface.

7. SURFACE.

With respect to Surface, Leaves are Dotted, or
as they are sometimes termed Punctate, as in the Or-
ange, Lemon, and different species of Hypericum.
When the veins are tighter than the intermediate sub-
stance of a leaf it is said to be Rugose or wrinkled, as
in the Foxglove and Sage. If the inequalities thu?

SURFACE OF LEAVES- 131

produced, are greater than in the last named example,
as in the Cabbage, a leaf is said to be Bullate or blis-
tery.

A Plaited leaf is folded like a fan, and the American
Hellebore is a good example. When the surface of a
leaf near its margin is waved obtusely up and down, it
is said to be Undulate ; and Curled when the border
is so much expanded as to be in regular folds, as in the
Curled-leaved Mallows.

When the middle of a long and narrow leaf is furrow-
ed or depressed it is said to be Chanelled, as in Narcis-
sus and Hyacinths. And when the midrib is prominent,
on the inferior surface of a leaf, as in the Indian Corn,
it is said to be Keeled.

A leaf is Veined when the vessels arise from it midrib,
as in the Cherry and Elm.

It is Nerved^ when arising from the petiole, its vessels
are continued from the base to its summit, as in Ladies
Slipper and Solomon's seal. When these nerves are
three, a leaf is termed three-nerved or three-nerved at
the base, when as in the Burdock and Sunflower, the
two lateral nerves pass for a considerable distance
along the margin of the leaf. When these nerves arise
above the base of a leaf it is said to be triply-nerved, as
in Ceanothus Americanus.

When the vessels of a leaf intersect each other so as
to form a net- work, a leaf is said to be Reticulate.
This is well seen in the Rattle snake Plantain, JVeottia
pubescens, whose white veins present a very obvious
contrast with the dark green colour of the interven-
ing cells.

The surface of a Lineate leaf is slightly marked lon-
gitudinally with depressed parallel lines.

When no vessels are apparent on the surface of a leaf
it is said to be Nerveless or even, as in Marsh Rose-
mary.

13^ LEAVES.

All leaves that are not green are said to be Coloured,
as in the Three-coloured Amaranthus, and Beet.

Variegated. — Dr. Smith applies this term to the
white and yellow spots which are the effect of disease.
The Ladies Striped-grass, so well known in almost ev-
ery garden, loses it variegated appearance when trans-
ferred to the fields, though its luxuriant growth in the
former situations, seems to indicate that it is not exclu-
sively the effect of disease. The same observations
are applicable to the Aucuba or Golden Plant of Japan,
and therefore it is probable, that an unnatural exposure,
perhaps to the action of light, may have produced this
effect.

An Aculeate leaf is covered with spines as in Rkexia.
When the serratures of a leaf terminate in sharp prick-
les it is said to be aculeate-serate.

A leaf destitute of every kind of pubescence is said to
be Naked.

8. SUBSTANCE.

With regard to Substance, Membranaceous leaves
are thin, flexible and almost transparent, as in Penny
wort. Coriaceous are thick and firm like leather, as in
Laurel and Oleander, and Succulent or fleshy leaves are
filled with pulp, as in the Ice plant and Aloe.

The Onion is an example of a Tubular leaf, and that
of the Water Lobelia, has two contiguous cavities or
cells. Fig. 51.

A thick oblong blunt leaf with a cartilaginous margin
is said to be Lingulate or Tongue- shaped. It occurs
but rarely.

An Ensiform or sword-shaped leaf, is two-edged,
erect, tapering to a point, with two convex or gibbous

MAGNITUDE OF LEAVES. i^O

surfaces, neither of which can be said to be superior.
The Blue flag, and other species of Iris furnish ex-
amples.

Sempervireut leaves retain their verdure through
one or more winters, as in the Laurel, Pine, and other
evergreens, but in Northern countries, leaves are more
usually Deciduous, falling at the approach of winter.

When the character of a leaf cannot be otherwise
precisely delineated, botanists qualify or combine the
terms which have been thus briefly defined. It is not
uncommon, for example, to find leaves which are in-
termediate between the ovate and the lanceolate forms,
and they are said to be ovate-lanceolate. Nor is it
unusual to find them with foot-stalks so very short,
that a student is unable to decide whether they are Ses-
sile or not ; but here the term sub-petiolate or sub-ses-
sile is used, and in this, as well as in all cases, the term
sw6, implies that the character in question is obscure
or not well defined.

" By the judicious use of such means," says Dr,
Smith, " all necessary precision is attained. Perhaps
no mind, though ever so intent on the subject can re-
tain all the possible terms of description and their vari-
ous combinations, for ready use at any given moment.

There are few natural objects, to which a variety of
terms are not equally applicable in description, so that
no two writers would exactly agree in their use.
Neither is Nature herself so constant as not perpetual-
ly to elude our most accurate research. Happy is that
naturalist, who can seize at a glance what is most char-
acteristic and permanent, and define all that is essential,
without trusting to fallacious though ever so specious
distinctions."

13

134 LEAVES.

9. MAGNITUDE.

The Magnitude of leaves varies almost as much
as their forms. In the mosses which abound in cold
climates, they are extremely minute ; and the forest trees
of the North are adorned with leaves which appear
diminutive, when compared or rather when contrasted
with the foliage of Equatorial plants. There we find
the leaves of the Banana, perhaps the same which were
employed by our first parents, to supply the want of a
more artificial dress ; they being in the opinion of
many writers the " Fig leaves" of sacred history. In
Ceylon, a country alternately exposed, for many
months in succession, to the rays of a vertical sun, and
the inclemencies of an unceasing storm, is found the
singular Talipot, a single leaf of which is sufficiently
large to shelter twenty men from the vicissitudes of
the climate in which they dwell. This tree is venera-
ted by those who find beneath its branches so kind a
shelter, and travellers consider it, as the greatest bless-
ing which Heaven has bestowed on the country. And
when we regard its subserviency to the wants of the
human race, it is not surprising that by the ancients,
the wide spreading tree, decorated with leaves and oc-
casionally beautified with flowers, should have been
held sacred as the very temple of the deities they
worshipped.

10. DURATION.

The Duration of leaves is also various. In this
climate they are mostly deciduous, and every autumn
return to their original dust, and enrich the soil from
which they derived their own nourishment. But the

TEXTURE OF THE LEAF. 136

trees of Equinoctial regions are perpetually verdant,
and the same leaves which have been noticed as unusu-
ally large, are equally remarkable on account of their
longevity, as they rarely fade till they are six years
old ; yet these very trees, when removed to a colder
region, are in some cases annually stripped of their
foliage. In its native country, the far famed Cydon,
and also when cultivated in the South of Europe the
Quince tree is evergreen, though here, as we have had
an abundant opportunity to see, it annually parts with
its leaves. On the other hand the Currant, which was
originally an inhabitant of the northern countries of
Burbpe, when transferred to the Island of St. Helena
was soon crowned with perennial leaves, but it there
produces less fruit than in its native country.

11. TEXTURE OF THE LEAF.

in examining the texture of the leaf, we shall find
the vessels of its petiole diverging in various directions,
imbedded in cellular substance, and enclosed by an ex-
terior membrane or Epidermis. The latter is trans-
parent and delicate, but at the same time sufficiently
firm to answer the object for which it was designed, to
secure from injury the vessels of the leaf, and to ex-
pose its fluids to the necessary agency of air and light.
It is sometimes covered with wool or hair, which seems
to afford an additional security against the vicissitudes
of climate. Plants thus protected are capable of endu-
ring a greater degree of heat than any others, and they
abound chiefly in the hottest sections of Europe and
America. More frequently, however, the epidermis
<\f\ f ■:■;■ \« rrv« red w : th v +r .nsparent varnish, which
f&ds ic tnur brilliantey, and secures them from the

136 LEAVES.

destructive influence of moisture. The trees of Abys-
sinia are furnished with leaves of this description, for
they are exposed to the violence of long continued
rains, which nothing but this armature could enable
them to resist. But whether covered with varnish
or down, it contains minute orifices or pores through
which vegetables discharge the excess of their fluids,
and abstract nourishment from the air.

Beneath the epidermis, we find the vessels of the
leaf, the tubes which ramify in every direction, and the
cells which occupy the intervening spaces. Two sys-
tems of the former are always to be found, one to dis-
tribute the fluids which descend through the petiole,
and another, to re-convey the elaborated sap to every
portion of the vegetable structure.

Between these vessels, which are usually most pro-
minent on its inferior surface, we find the cellular sub-
stance of the leaf, which is not merely the seat of vege-
tation, but the source of those charms, which render
the summer's landscape more interesting and more
lovely, than the bleak scenery cf winter. The green
substance of the leaf consists entirely of these cells,
jvhich are filled with fluids here exposed to the action
of different agents, acquiring new properties and form-
ing the vegetable secretions. In this texture, the me-
dicinal and nutritive qualities of leaves reside, and they
supply cattle with their daily food, and insects, which
usually manifest a partiality for the leaves of one plant,
and avoid every other. Thus the Cochineal insect
thrives only on the Cactus, and the silk worm clings to
the leaf of the Mulberry, but they both die when denied
access to the leaves or cellular texture of their respec-
tive plants. These vessels constituting the cortical
net, consist of two layers corresponding to the two

USES OF LEAVES. 137

surfaces of the leaf. Holman detected and separated
them in the leaf of the Pear tree, and Linnseus pursuing
the same inquiry discovered their points of union, and
ascertained that the fabric of the inferior layer is more
delicate than the other. It is said that Hedwig discov-
ered similar layers in the mosses which he examined,
and moreover, that in the leaf of the Orange tree, he
detected an additional layer. " But no language is
able to convey an adequate idea of the delicacy and
intricacy of the web. It must be inspected as it exists
in the contexture or rather in the decay of the leaf,
whole leaves being found reduced to a skeleton of
fibres in the winter or spring, lying at the roots of
trees in situations where they have not been dispersed
by the wind."* Figs. 57 and 58 represent the cor-
tical net

12. USES OF LEAVES.

Wearied with the examination of the diversified
forms of leaves, the student turns with delight to the
contemplation of their uses, and in the pursuit of the
latter inquiry, he finds an adequate compensation for
the fatigue of the former.

It was the opinion of an ancient writer, that leaves
were designed to protect fruit from the intense heat of
summer. In proof of its correctness, he observed that
leaves always appear before the fruit, continue till it
ripens, when they fall, as if the sole end of their exist-
ence was accomplished. If however, a branch be
prematurely stripped of its leaves, its green fruit will
never arrive at maturity. It was also observed, that in,

* Keith.

* 13

138 LEAVES.

those countries where the heat is always intense, trees
never part with their leaves. The correctness of an
opinion, confirmed by arguments like these, was for a
while unquestioned, but subsequent observations have
shewn, that leaves are subservient to other and more
important ends. It is true, they defend the fruit from
the intense heat of summer, and at the same time, pro-
tect animals and even men from the parching rays of
noon-day. And in cultivating the plants of warm cli-
mates, naturally pleased with a greater degree of heat,
it is often expedient to remove the leaves, so as to ex-
pose the flowers and fruit to the full influence of the
sun. This practice, fatal if carried too far, when ju-
diciously adopted, will restore to their native flavour,
the Melon, the Orange, and the Grape.

It has long been known, that leaves are organs of
Exhalation, from which an invisible vapour continually
escapes, capable of being collected, condensed, and
accurately examined. The fact is illustrated by a
very simple experiment, and we all know that when a
branch is separated from its parent stock, it will shortly
droop, wither and die. Its weight is diminished, for it
is no longer filled with those fluids on which its firmness
and elasticity depend. They have been discharged
through the pores of the leaves, which, being cut off
from all further supply, are sooner or later entirely ex-
hausted. But if a leafy stem be placed in a small ves-
sel of water, its freshness will be preserved a much
longer time, though the perceptible and rapid diminu-
tion of the water, will prove that the leaves have been
the outlet, through which it has escaped. If the same
branch be placed in a close tin box, its freshness will
be still longer preserved. Here are no fluids for the
stem to absorb, but by confining the air which is al-

USES OF LEAVES. 139

ready saturated with vapour, we prevent its further
escape from the leaves, which must of necessity cease
to transpire. They retain the same fluids with which
they are already supplied, and though they perform
none of the actions, they exhibit the appearance of per-
fect health. Thus they may be preserved for weeks,
and thus the botanical traveller, who expects to de-
rive every advantage from his journey, will collect
and preserve the plants that meet his eye, till he has
leisure to examine them.

The quantity of vapour thus exhaled, though various,
is commonly greater than at first view we should be
prepared to expect. When the sun is bright, and the
atmosphere dry and warm, leaves perspire more copi-
ously, than when Clouds obscure the brightness of the
one, and diffuse a moisture through the other. In the
former case, the mown grass is converted into hay in a
few hours, in the latter, it is so tenacious of its fluids
as to baffle every effort of the farmer to hasten the
process.

In general, succulent plants exhale more sparingly
than others. It seems to have been the design of Na-
ture, that they should inhabit the burning sands of the
Torrid Zone, and the peculiarity of their native situa-
tion, makes it necessary for them to preserve the
fluids, which, with so much difficulty they procure.
But plants with thin membranaceous leaves which
generally occupy moist situations, where they are sup-
plied with an abundance of water, perspire very copi-
ously. The Sunflower, which is very frequently met
with in the United States, was found to exhale two
pounds in the course of a day ; and in the same space
of time the Cornelian Cherry, a shrub with thin and
almost transparent leaves, growing in the hedges of

140 LEAVES.

Europe, is said to lose a quantity equal to twice its own
weight. On a warm summer's day, at a time when
there had been no rain for several weeks, Dr. Watson
placed some grass under a large vessel, and in two min-
utes it was covered with moisture which ran down its
sides. By collecting it on muslin, he ascertained the
amount of this exhalation ; and from the result of his
experiments, he wa* led to conclude, that in the course
of a day, an acre of land transpires nearly two thousand
gallons of water. The rapidity with which plants
wither, will teach us how fast their roots absorb, or
their leaves exhale, and in cultivating rare plants, this
simple experiment will enable us to determine, what
quantity of water they require. But in the perform-
ance of this experiment, the condition of the atmos-
phere, must be taken into consideration. Nor should
it be entirely overlooked by the practical gardener,
whose operations frequently fail, because they are
performed at an untimely hour. Every person who
has been engaged in transplanting, knows it may be ac-
complished with more success, on some days than on
others. If removed when the air is warm and dry,
plants are apt to wither, and unless carefully managed,
they will shortly perish beyond the power of recovery :
but under different circumstances, and at a proper time,
the same thing is performed without difficulty or dan-
ger.

The fluid which is exhaled by the leaves, may be col-
lected, by introducing a branch into a capacious glass
vessel, but it possesses no very peculiar properties.
In all plants it is nearly uniform, being the residue of
the s»p, after the separation of its more essentia! secre-
tions. Occasionally it is combined with a volatile oil,
which communicates to the atmosphere around, the pe-

USES OF LEAVES. 141

culiar fragrance of the plant which exhales it. When
the temperature suddenly changes, the insensible per-
spiration is sometimes condensed, in the form of tears.
This was observed by the Roman Poet, whose my-
thology had transformed the mournful sisters of Phae-
ton into Poplars, and the fluids which glittered on their
leaves, were the tears which bespoke their anguish.

It may frequently be observed on the leaves of those
plants, which delight in moist shady situations, and fade
rapidly whenever they are removed. The Lnpatiens
fulva, termed on account of its elastic capsules Touch-
me-not, is one of this kind. I have frequently seen it
when every other plant around was dry ; yet its leaves
glittered with the vapour, which in the form of tears,
had been condensed on their surface.

Very different from condensed vapour, are the exu-
dations, which frequently appear on the leaves of dif-
ferent plants ; and which are either an effusion of heal-
thy secretion, or an indication of disease. The Honey-
dew, which is seen on the leaves of the Beech, is oc-
casioned by dampness of the atmosphere, and denotes
its unhealthy condition ; but Manna frequently covers
the leaves of the healthy Ash, from which tree it is
usually obtained, as we procure sugar from the Maple.
Sometimes this effusion possesses adhesive properties,
sometimes it is intensely bitter, and in some cases highly
inflammable.

Leaves are organs of Absorption. The use of a tin
box to preserve their freshness has already been noticed.
If it contains a minute quantity of water, it will restore
to the vigour of health, the fading and the dying leaf.
This renovation arises from its power to imbibe mois-
ture from the atmosphere of the box in which it is con-
fined ; a power which most leaves possess, though in

1 42 LEAVES.

very different degrees. This was abundantly proved
by the experiments of Bonnet. He placed the leaves
of various plants on the surface of water, in order to
ascertain the relative absorbing power of different
leaves ; and also, of the different surfaces of the same
leaf. His experiments, so easily performed, have been
repeated by others, and their results are too curious to
be unknown. A singular difference has been observed,
between the leaves of trees and herbaceous plants, the
former absorbing chiefly by their inferior, and the latter
by their upper surface. One of the plants which Bon-
net employed, was the Purple-leaved Amaranth ; and
though it lived not a week, with its inferior surface on
the water, it retained its vigour several months, when
its position was reversed. On the other hand he placed
the upper surface of the Mulberry leaf on the water,
and it continued healthy about six days, when it began
to droop. He placed by its side another leaf, from the
same tree, with its inferior surface on the water, and in
that position it remained six months, before it lost its
vigour and health. To prove that absorption really
converts the vapour of the atmosphere to its own use,
we have only to place one of two leaves, which are
connected together, in a proper situation to imbibe
moisture, and the fluid absorbed, is frequently sufficient
to support them both. When speaking of Parasitic
plants, I mentioned the Epidendrum or Flower of the
Air, which trails over the wall* of the Indian's cottage,
and is prized by him for the perfume of its blossoms.
Yet this plant is sustained entirely by the moisture
which its leaves imbibe from the air of the same room,
through which it diffuses its delightful fragrance.

A knowledge of the exhaling, and absorbing power
of leaves, is often of great practical importance. It

U8S9 OP LEAVES 14S

teaches us that plants droop, in consequence of the ex-
cess of the former, and are to be revived by diminish-
ing their discharge, or increasing their absorption.
The former is accomplished by confining the air around
them ; and the latter, by sprinkling water over the
leaves ; and when plants have recently been removed,
such management is frequently required.

Leaves are Organs of Respiration. By the aid of the
microscope, Dr. Grew ascertained the existence of air
cells in the substance of leaves. He also observed the spi-
ral coated vessels, which are particularly numerous in the
leaf, as well as in the substance of the alburnum. His dis-
coveries led to the conclusion, that leaves absorb air, that
their cells receive, and their vessels convey it, to every
part of the growing plant. The next experiments were
performed with an Air-pump ; by which abundance of air
was procured from the leaves, and other parts of vegeta-
bles, and the truth of former speculations, more firmly
established. It was also demonstrated by Bonnet, whose
experiments on absorption, we have already mention-
ed, that when leaves are placed in water, and exposed
to the influence of the sun, air escapes from their sur-
face. But we owe to the labours of Priestly more than
to all others. Aided by the resources of modern chem-
istry, this distinguished veteran of science, first exhi-
bited in its true light, the influence of vegetation on the
air we breathe, and presented to the scientific world,
a simple yet satisfactory explanation of phenomena,
which had eluded the investigations of all his prede_
cessors.

It is well known, that when animals cease to breathe,
they immediately perish. The air by which they are
sustained, is no less essential to the healthy existence
of plants. But to comprehend and explain this subject.

144 LEAVES.

in all its interesting relations, we must premise a few
observations respecting the constitution of the atmos-
phere. It is composed of three invisible fluids, two of
which possess very peculiar properties. One of these
is oxygen or vital air, the great supporter of combustion
and animal life, without which neither can for a moment
exist. Combustible bodies introduced into a portion of
this gas, burn with increased splendour ; its volume is
diminished, and they acquire an additional weight, pro-
portioned exactly to the quantity of gas absorbed. Its
union with inflammable bodies, is usually attended with
an evolution of heat and light, constituting in ordinary
language, combustion or fire ; but sometimes this union
is effected without the appearance of flame.

If 30 grains of powdered charcoal are inflamed in 100
cubic inches of this gas, both the charcoal and the oxy-
gen disappear, a combination of their elements is ef-
fected, and a new product is formed, possessing very
different properties from either. This is carbonic acid
gas, or fixed air, and it constitutes an essential, though
a very small portion of the atmospheric air. The res-
piration of animals is one of its most fruitful sources,
and hence we find that the atmosphere of a close and
crowded room soon becomes contaminated, and unfit to
sustain the ordinary functions of life ; and this contami-
nation arises entirely from the repeated respiration of
confined air, by which it is deprived of its oxygen, and
impregnated with carbonic acid.

A diligent inquirer after truth, would ask how the pu-
rity of the atmosphere is preserved, while millions of
animals are continually breathing out their noxious ex-
halations. Even the light which guided the immortal
Priestly through his evening labours, was contaminating
the air, while it enabled him to point out the renovat-

USES OF LEAVES. 14i>

ing cause — while it assured him and us, that every part
of the creation is controlled by the Wisdom of an Infi-
nite Mind. By a series of experiments conducted with
his accustomed ingenuity, he ascertained that growing
plants imbibe carbonic acid and expire oxygen gas. The
leaf of a Vine was introduced into a phial of the former,
and in less than two hours the fixed air disappeared, and
oxygen gas was found in its place. If leaves be intro-
duced into an inverted tumbler of water, and exposed
to the influence of the sun's rays, bubbles of air will
appear on their surface. They consist of nearly pure
oxygen gas, but if the same experiment is performed in
the dark, the air evolved does not possess the same
degree of purity. Thus we learn the mutual depend-
ence of the two living kingdoms of nature upon each
other, the beauty and harmony of creation : Man ex-
pires the food of plants — plants exhale what has been
emphatically denominated the breath of life.

After the experiments of Priestly, it was supposed
that respiration deprived the air of that oxygen, which
is restored by the vegetation of plants. This theory,
so satisfactory, and apparently so well established, has
been received till lately without a doubt. Within a few
years, however, Mr. Ellis has performed some experi-
ments, which lead him to reject the opinions of Priest-
ly, and to insist on the one effect of organized living ex-
istence ; and he maintains that the germinating seed, the
vegetating plant, and the respiring animal, all produce
the same changes, all increase the carbonic acid and di-
minish the oxygen of the atmosphere. Whatever credit
is due to this gentleman for the ingenuity of his expert
ments, they do not appear to justify his conclusions, and
his opinions are yet to be established by additional
proof, or else entirely rejected ; for they are not con-

14

146 LEAVES.

sistent with the observations of many of his predeces
sors, and of some who have succeeded him. They
do not explain why the air we breathe is constantly pure,
notwithstanding the unequivocal and decidedly bad ef-
fects of respiration. They point to no renovating
cause ; and if true, they must subvert one of the most
beautiful explanations of modern science ; one which
has long been sanctioned by high authority, and will
long be remembered with delight, even if it should be
proved erroneous. Speaking on this subject, Sir Hum-
phry Davy makes the following observations. " It can-
not be supposed that the production of oxygen from the
leaf, which is known to be connected with its natural
colour, is an exertion of diseased action, or that it can
acquire carbon in the day time, during its most vigorous
growth, and when all its powers for obtaining nourish-
ment are exerted, merely for the purpose of exhaling
it at night." He concludes that in proportion to the ex-
igencies of any plant, will be the rapidity of its absorb-
ing carbon ; that if one be made to grow in pure water,
and another be placed in carbonaceous earth, the leaves
of the former will derive from the atmosphere, what
the roots of the latter absorb from the ground ; and
tinally that when the leaves of vegetables perform their
healthy functions, they purify the air. And their in-
fluence on the temperature of the atmosphere, is one
of those extraordinary provisions of Nature, which
claims the attention and the gratitude of man. Were it
not for this, the summer's wind would become a Siroc-
co, and the breeze of health would be converted into
a pestilential blast. We have already recited the ob-
servations of Sonnerat, who found plants comparatively
cool, although the heat of the earth from which they

USES OF LEAVER. 147

derived their nourishment, was scarcely less than that
of boiling water.

But to promote these effects, Light is an agent of in-
dispensible importance. We already know that when
it is excluded, leaves become sickly and pale, their
stems lose their natural elasticity and strength, for the
former derive no nourishment from the air, and the lat-
ter no sustenance from the leaf. The fluids are retain-
ed, no oxygen escapes, there is a deficiency of alkali,
on which the green colour of the leaf is supposed to de-
pend, and of carbon, which alone gives firmness to the
wood. But when light is admitted, it enables the leaf
to convert the carbon of the air to its use, which as it
descends through the vessels of the bark, becomes al-
burnum, and at last forms perfect wood. It also ena-
bles the leaf to exhale its excess of fluids, and of oxy
gen, thereby increasing the proportion of that alkali,
on which its green and healthy colour depends. But
the beneficial influence of light upon leaves is confined
entirely to their superior surface, which always courts
the full influence of the sun, and turns as if to welcome
his congenial rays. Those who have cultivated plants,
must have observed how uniformly they mantain this
position, and if disturbed, how soon they resume it ;
and if a Vine leaf be suspended by a thread, it is still
susceptible of impression from the sun's light, and re-
tains the power to follow him in his course.

The pinnate leaves are more under the dominion of
light than any others. They expand in the morning,
and at the approach of darkness close around each
other, and sometimes around the full blown flower, as
if for mutual protection and support. This is the sleep
of plants, but what analogy it bears to the sleep so es-
sential, and so refreshing to the animal kingdom, is left

148 LEAVES.

for others to determine. These are the leaves which
have already been mentioned, to prove that sensibility
is one of the properties of vegetable life. The Sensi-
tive plant, which shrinks from the slightest touch, is
nearly allied to several others which possess similar
degrees of this extraordinary power. The leaves of
the Fly-trap Dioncea muscipula, Fig. 53, exhibit no
marks of sensibility until the unfortunate fly ventures
to light on its surface, when it instantly closes and con-
fines the insect prisoner, as long as he continues to
struggle for escape. On the banks of the Ganges is
found a plant exhibiting such powers as to excite the
astonishment of every beholder. It is the Hedysarum
gyrajis or the Moving plant of India. If as he passes
by the playful Indian impedes its motion, no sooner
does it regain its liberty than its operations are renew-
ed with increased activity, as if it were necessary to
redeem the time which had been lost. I have seen this
plant in a green-house, and though no breath of air
disturbed the peace of its companions, its winged
leaves disdained to rest, but exhibited the most aston-
ishing example of industry I ever saw.

The degree of vapour in the atmosphere has a pow-
erful effect upon the leaves of some plants, so that they
indicate with almost unerring certainty the approach of
rain. We are yet on the threshhold of discovery.
When we shall have advanced a few steps farther, those
plants which now appear to have been formed in vain,
will display their useful qualities, they will enable the
physician to combat disease, and the traveller to avoid
the impending storm.

The leaf of Sarracenia* Fig.54 presents one of those

* The Sarracenia purpurea frequently named Adam's Cup, or

USES OF LEAVES. 1 49

anomalies which excite the attention of the most indiffer-
ent observers. It is tubular, and the lid which is attach-
ed to its dilated margin, is covered with rigid hairs, uni-
formly projecting towards its base. If we examine the
interior of this leaf, we shall find it partially filled with
water, and stored with insects, which having been en-
tangled by its marginal hairs, were precipitated into
the cavity, where they perished. What is the design of
this singular arrangement 1 By Catesby who resided
several years in South Carolina, it was said to furnish
insects and flies with a secure retreat against the at-
tacks of birds and reptiles, but unfortunately for his
hypothesis, it was rather a fatal than a safe retreat.
By Linnaeus it was supposed to preserve a supply of
water in its cavity, till a dry season rendered its ex-
penditure necessary for the growth of the plant. It
has been replied to this, that the old leaves which re-
quire the least water, are furnished with the largest
supply, and that even in the dryest season, this quanti-
ty is never entirely exhausted.

Abandoning the opinions of Catesby and Linnasus,
Dr. Smith has adopted another which seems to have
been founded on a single observation, made in the
Botanic garden at Liverpool. An insect was observed
by the gardener, drawing the flies which he could
manage, into the tube of the leaf, where he supposed
they were deposited as food for the aggressor, for it
was found that the other leaves were also partially fill-
ed with water, and contained several dead or drowning
flies. In most cases I am persuaded they are not forced
into their hollow tomb, but having ventured too far

Side Saddle flower, is occasionally found in the low marshy
grounds of New-England.

* 14

150 LEAVES.

upon the hairy border, they are unable to return, and
at last fall into the water, where they perish. Here
unquestionably they may be of use to the plant, by
furnishing it with nourishment, which is absorbed by
its hollow leaf, for the air evolved by decaying insects
is favourable to vegetation. Dr. Smith therefore con-
cludes that the design of this singular construction is
to entrap and retain the small insects which become
food for their larger companions, and nourishment for
the plant which contains them, and he thinks it curious,
M that an European insect should find out an American
plant in a hothouse, in order to fulfil that purpose."*

It would be useless to find fault with this hypothesis,
©r to mention others which have been defended with
equal ingenuity, for none of them rest on the substantial
basis of observation and experiment. It remains to
be ascertained, whether the water which the leaf con-
tains is derived from its root or from another source,
whether it is pure, or impregnated with any of the veg-
etable secretions, whether the insects with which it is
stored, are forced into its cavity or become victims to
their own temerity, whether they furnish birds and in-
sects with food, and whether the plant is less vigorous,
when all foreign substances are excluded from the cav-
ity of its singular leaves. When these questions are all
answered, there will be time enough to speculate ; but
until the subject is more thoroughly investigated, no
theory can rest on a substantial foundation.

The leaf of the Nepenthes distillatoria, Fig. 55, a plant
that grows among the bogs of India, presents a similar
anomaly. A pitcher-shaped appendage attached to its
superior extremity is partially filled with water, but the

* Smith's Introduction.

USES OF LEAVES. 151

cavity being furnished with a moveable lid apparently
designed to exclude the rain, there can be no doubt that
the fluid it contains is derived from the vessels of the
leaf and not froni any foreign source.

Frond. — When the leaf and stem are so incorporated
as to form but one organ, whose parts do not even in
decay spontaneously separate, they present by their
union an example of the Frond. Such examples are
rare, unless we descend to the inspection of the inferi-
or classes of plants, and its various arrangements as
exhibited by them will be noticed in a subsequent
Chapter.

As applicable to the more perfect plants, it is pecul-
iar to the Palms, and the tall Palmetto of the south, will
serve to exemplify this singular arrangement. But its
application to them has of late grown into disuse, and
as the stalk of the Palm, formerly denominated the
stipe, now ranks with stems, so must its peculiar foliage
be regarded as a variety of leaves.

CHAPTER X,

APPENDAGES.

There are various appendages to the parts already
enumerated, which are either organs of defence or
support. Sometimes they are evidently designed to
defend the leaf and tender shoot from cold. Some-
times they are a security from other injuries, but in a
few cases their uses in the economy of vegetation, re-
main to be ascertained. Their forms are much diver-
sified, and they all occasionally furnish discriminative
characters, to which the botanist often finds it neces-
sary to resort.

1. BUDS.

About mid-summer, the progress of vegetation seems
to be suspended, and for several days, the vital energies
of the tree, are exerted in the formation of buds. We
no longer observe the vigorous growth of spring, but
if we examine the young branches, we shall find the
newly formed buds at the base of the leafstalk, imme-
diately above the place of their insertion. After the
fall of the leaves, they are more conspicuous, and du-
ring the winter we may perceive a gradual enlarge-
ment, corresponding to the developement of the tender
germs which they enclose. Their situation like that
of the leaves, is either alternate or opposite, there
being in the former case a solitary bud at the summit
of the branch, and in the latter three terminal buds,

BUDS. 153

the central one being larger than the others. Their
form is not unlike that of a Pear, and their organization
exhibits a happy combination of utility and beauty,
well meriting the attention of the student. On their
exterior surface we find a series of concave scales,
enclosing each other like the tiles of a house. The
outer of these are hard and dry, the other more delicate
and resembling in their texture the leaves which they
enclose. These scales are frequently connected to-
gether by a resinous substance, which water is unabl e
to penetrate, and this armature is particularly obvious
on the large buds of the Horse-Chesnut. Having re-
moved the scales we find the leaves or flowers, or per-
haps both enclosed in down, which like the fur of ani-
mals is designed as a security against the influence of
cold.

The buds of the Walnut and Horse-Chesnut are un-
usually large, and the examination of either of these
will enable us to form an accurate idea of their general
structure and usej one of the latter was dissected by a
German botanist for whose patience I have great res-
pect, at the time when it did not exceed the size of a
pea. He found it covered externally by about 20
scales, which were cemented together by the resinous
adhesive substance so conspicuous in the buds of that
tree. Within the scales he found the embryo envel-
oped in down, and pursuing the inquiry he distinctly
saw twenty-eight leaves surrounding a spike of sixty
flowers. The scales, resin and down, all conspire to
produce the same effect, though the first appears par-
ticularly designed to guard against external injury from
birds and animals, while the down serves as a protection
from cold, and the resin from moisture and air.

United, they enable the tender embryo to brave the

154 APPENDAGES.

vicissitudes of a northern climate, and protect it from
other injuries till the period of expansion arrives. In
the northern section of the United States, we find but
few trees or shrubs capable of enduring the cold of
winter without this security.

In Sweden we are told there is but one shrub desti-
tute of bud?, and that from the peculiarity of its situa-
tion, is always protected from the inclemencies of the
Swedish winter. But in warmer climates, the tender
shoots do not require this protection, and accordingly,
we find that the Orange, Lemon and Mimosa, and other
shrubs, natives of tropical regions, are not furnished
with the " winter cradles" of northern plants. If they
are, whatever may have been their natural situations,
whatever may be the degree of heat to which they have
been accustomed, they will probably endure the cold of
our winters and flourish without protection in the open
air.

Botanists distinguish three varieties of buds, one to
enclose the leaves and their branches, one to contain
the rudiments of the future flower, while the other
possesses an intermediate or rather combined character,
am performs the office of both. The flower and leaf
buds are easily distinguished by their forms, the
former being round and short, the latter slender, long
and pointed. The Peach presents examples of each
variety, the leaves and flowers being distinct ; and the
buds of the Lilac enclose them both together. The
leaf bud will grow luxuriantly when placed on the
earth, but in the same situation the other uniformly
dies.

It has been recently discovered, and it is a discovery
of no small practical importance, that these varieties of
buds are convertible into each other. Mariotte de

BVDft.

15u

prived a Rose tree of its branches and leaves, suffering
nothing to remain but the buds, which would have pro-
duced flowers, the ensuing spring. They continued to
grow, but when the period of their expansion arrived,
instead of flowers they put forth branches and leaves.

An accident which occurred in one of the Royal gar-
dens of England first demonstrated the possibility of
increasing the proportion of flower buds. A West
India plant* which had for several years been culti-
vated in the green house grew luxuriantly, but refused
to produce flowers. " At length it was accidentally
left without water, in the dry stove at Kew, and in con-
sequence of this unintentional neglect, the luxuriant
growth of its branches was greatly checked, and a flow-
er came forth at the extremity of each. By a similar
mode of treatment, the same effect has since frequently
been produced. Several plants, especially with bul-
bous roots, which blossom abundantly in their native
soils, have hitherto defied all the art of our gardeners
to produce this desirable effect ; yet future experience
may possibly place it within our reach by some very
simple means. In general, whatever checks the luxu-
riant productions of leaf-buds, favours the formation
of flowers and seeds. That variety of the Orange Li-
ly which is most prolific in buds, seldom forms seeds,
or even those organs of the flower necessary to their
perfection. So likewise the seeds of Mints, a tribe of
plants which increase excessively by roots, have hardly
been detected by any botanist ; and it is asserted by
Doody, that when the elegant little Ornithopus perpu-
sillus does not produce pods, it propagates itself by
grains or tubercles of its root, though in general th?

* Solandra grandiftortt .

156 APPENDAGES.

root is annual. But such propagation is only the exten-
sion of an individual, and not a re-production of the
species as by seed. Accordingly, all plants increased
by buds, cuttings, layers, or roots, retain precisely the
peculiar qualities of the individual to which they owe
their origin. If those qualities differ from what are
common to the species, sufficient to constitute what is
called a variety, that variety is perpetuated through all
the progeny thus obtained. This fact is exemplified in
a thousand instances, none more notorious than the dif-
ferent kinds of apples, all varieties of one common
stock."*

The Bulbs which have been formerly described are
closely allied to Buds. This affinity is less obvious,
when the bulb occurs in its most usual position, beneath
the surface of the ground, than when it arises from the
bosom of the leaves, or in the vicinity of the flowers.
The Bulb-bearing Loose-strife presents an example of
the first, and the Meadow-garlic of the second variety ;
and in both cases it remains attached to the parent plant,
till the embryo it encloses has reached maturity. It
then falls to the ground, strikes root, and a new plant
is developed. In their situation these bulbs are anala-
gous to buds ; in their destiny they appear more like
bulbs, and are to be regarded as a connecting link between
the buds of trees, and the radical bulbs of herbaceous
plants.

2. STIPULES.

The leaves and their petioles are frequently accom-
panied by small leaf-like appendages, which, in the

Smith.

STIPULES. 167

technical language of the botanist, are termed Stipule*.
They are usually found in pairs at the base of the peti-
ole, Fig. 20, and this Dr. Smith regards as their most
natural position.

In the Myrtle-leaved Pea-vine they are semi- sagit-
tate, resembling a section of the arrow-shaped leaf; in
the Willow, they are frequently lunulate, having the
appearance of the crescent-shaped leaf ; in the Silver
weed they are ovate ; in the common Pea they are
round ; and in other plants they assume other figures
designated by terms which have been defined in a for-
mer chapter.

In the examples which have been enumerated,- the
stipules are in pairs, exterior to the leaf; and in some
of them, and also in the Rose, they are laterally united
to the. petiole at its base. In other plants, the stipules
are internal and simple, as in the Knot-grass, and other
species of Polygonum. In these it is frequently tubu-
lar, forming a sheath for the stem above the insertion
of the petiole ; and to this peculiar variety of the sti-
pule, those who are fond of minute distinctions have
applied the term Gchrea.

In the natural order of Grasses it is also solitary, form-
ing a membranous scale, which arises from the summit
of the sheath, and like it encloses the culm. This
form of the stipule is denominated ligula, a term which
Dr. Smith regards as superfluous, and of course to be
rejected. It is however still retained by several wri-
ters, and not unfrequently occurs in the delineations of
American grasses. Usually the stipules are persistent,
and fall only with the leaves, but in the Tulip-tree they
are deciduous and fail as soon as the leaves are fully
expanded. The presence and figure of this organ are

©ften the basis of botanical distinctions and Jussieu

15

iod APPENDAGES.

in distributing the vegetable kingdom into natural or-
ders, has frequently derived from them his secondary
characters.

In their functions these organs are auxiliary to the
leaves, serving like them for the elaboration of the sap ;
and in some of the Pea vines it has been observed that
the latter occasionally disappear, leaving only the sti-
pules to supply their place.

3. TENDRILS.

These are filiform appendages by which weak stems
.ire attached to their supporters. They usually arise
from the branches, being opposite to the leaves in the
Vine, and axillary in the Passion flower. In a few in-
stances they arise from the leaf, and very rarely from
the petiole and flower stalk. In the Traveller's Joy,
Clematis Virginica, the petiole itself performs the of-
fice of tendrils, and twines like them around other ob-
jects for support, and in the Annona hexapetala, the
flower stalk forms a hook and grasps the neighbouring
branches serving to suspend its very heavy fruit. The
young tendril usually proceeds in a straight direction
till it has found something to cling to, after which it as-
sumes its spiral form and brings the young vine closer
to the objects which sustain it. Some turn from right
to left, some from left to right, while a few possess the
property of twining in either direction. In the Ivy,
Fig. 18, they are not spiral, being merely fibres which
arise from the stem and penetrate the bark of the
neighbouring trees, or if denied access to other vege-
tables they cling to the naked wall, " attaching them-
selves firmly as the stem elongates, which thus often
climbs to the summit of the loftiest trees or to the bat-

PUBESCENCE. lo^

dements of the loftiest towers, covering the decayed
trunk with a borrowed foliage, and giving beauty even
to the mouldering ruin/'*

Those of the common Creeper are branched, and
their minute extremities cling powerfully to the hard-
est, smoothest rocks, and therefore it is admirably
calculated to screen the cheerless wall from our view.
It is in fact, the only Ivy of which we can boast, for
that of which the poets sing, is not an American plant.
The tendrils of the laughing Vine, have long been con
sidered the fittest emblem which joy could wear :
probably because some votary of cheerful mirth, had
associated the juice of the grape with the tendril which
supports it.

4. PUBESCENCE.

This term includes all the down and hairs with which
the surface of plants is invested. Sometimes it appears
like dust or powder scattered over the surface of the
vegetable ; sometimes like fine silky down, communi-
cating a silvery whiteness as in the common Silver-weed,
Potentilla anserina ; sometimes it is velvet like, as in
the leaf of Sida Mutilon ; and sometimes it assumes a
woolly appearance, the hairs being curled and matted
together, as in the leaf of the Mullein ; sometimes
these hairs are few and scattered as in leaves of Noble
Liverwort ; sometimes they are long and shaggy, some-
times they are short and pungent, arising from small
eminences as in many of the rough-leaved plants.

None of the appendages are more affected by culti-
vation than these, and ttetefore it has been establishec

* Keith.

160 APPENDAGES.

as a general principle, that except in cases of necessity,
no marks of specific distinction should be drawn from
them. They enable us by observing the peculiar ar-
rangement which they assume in some of the Mints to
discriminate between species, which we should other-
wise be apt to confound. Nor is it uncommon for wri-
ters to notice as one of the striking features of the plants
they describe, whether it be pubescent or not ; that
term being employed to express the different kinds of
hairs which have been enumerated in the present
section.

5. GLANDS.

»

These are minute organs of various forms usually
attached to the leaf or its foot stalk. They occur in
the substance of the leaves of the Myrtle, Lemon, and
common St. Jobn's-wort, causing them to appear dot-
ted when exposed to the light. They occur on the pe-
tioles of the Nectarine, Snow-ball, and Passion-flower,
between the serratures of the leaf in the Almond, and
on its superior surface in the Sun-dew. In the latter
they are filiform, and tipped with a clear transparent
secretion, which glitters like dew in the sun. In
Roses, Fig. 59, particularly in the Moss Rose, these
glands are elevated on a slender stalk, and contain a
secretion, which communicates to many species of that
interesting family of plants, their peculiar and delight-
ful perfume. Glands sometimes furnish marks of spe-
cific distinction, to which it is often convenient and
sometimes necessary to resort. They enable us to
discriminate betwixt the Almond and the Peach, the
leaves of the former being glandulous while those of
the Peach are not.

ARMATURE. 161

6. ARMATURE.

In addition to the preceding, there are appendages,
which seem more evidently designed for the security
of the plants on which they occur. One of these is
the Sting of the Nettle, a plant which thrives around
the dwellings of man, as if to defy his attacks, it being
admirably prepared to resist them. The hairs or
stings by which the Nettle is covered, are tubular,
very slender and pointed, but expanding towards their
base, so as to form a receptacle for the secreted fluid,
Fig. 60. By this sting we are wounded, but the pain
which ensues, is caused by the venomous fluid, which
is conveyed through the cavity of the sting into the
wound.

Another variety of armature is the Prickle. It arises
from the bark being sometimes straight, sometimes
hooked, and sometimes forked. The Rose, the Bram-
ble and the Raspberry furnish examples of these seve-
ral varieties.

Some plants are guarded by Thorns, which in many
instances appear to be diminutive stems, assuming
their peculiar form, from the want of cultivation. The
wild Pear tree is covered with thorns, but when trans-
ferred to the more congenial soil of the garden, they
are found to disappear. Linnaeus imagined that such
trees were divested of their natural ferocity, and
therefore in the pursuit of his favourite analogy, he
said they were tamed. Certain it is that they fall un-
der the more immediate protection of man and no
longer require their original armour, and whenever
they disappear by culture, it may be presumed thay
are abortive bads, which in a more favourable situation
would have been converted into luxuriant branches,
* 15

162 APPENDAGES.

But in some cases the thorns do not disappear even un-
der circumstances favourable to vegetation. Such are
the spines which beset the Gooseberry, and such are
the thorns of many shrubs which are used in the con-
struction of hedges.

CHAPTER XL

FLOWER STALK AND INFLORESCENCE.

The stalk which bears the flower and fruit, springs
immediately from the earth, as in Dandelion, or arises
from the stem and its branches. In the former case it
presents an example of the Scape which like the radical
leaves, is appropriated chiefly to stemless plants. In
the Hyacinth it is naked, in the Colts foot it is scaly,
in the Valisneria it is spiral, in the Dandelion it is
tubular, and iu the sweet flag it terminates in a leaf-
like expansion, and is denominated leafy.

When the flower-stalk arises directly from the stem
or its branches it is named the Peduncle. When it
arises from the side of the stem it is lateral, when from
the summit it is terminal, and when from the bosom of
the leaves it is axillary. It is one-flowered in the Tu-
lip, two-flowered in Li?incea, and many flowered as in
the Cowslip Fig. 22 and Lilac.

In the latter, and indeed in numerous other examples,
the flower-stalk is branched, and the peculiar arrange-
ment which the flowers assume, technically named the
Inflorescence depends on the number, proportion and
distribution of these pedicels or branches. If the flow-
ers are solitary, or in pairs, their origin alone will oc-
cup} our attention, " but when many grow together,
their aggrog-.tion forms a feature in the habit of the
plant, ppculiarly striking and peculiarly interesting to
the botanist, as forming the most elegant and the most
invariable of ail specific distinctions.

164 INFLORESCENCE.

1. The UMBEL Fig. 62. — The umbel is a mode of
flowering in which a number of flower-stalks issuing
from a common centre diverge like the rays of an
umbrella, bearing their flowers on the summit, and
raising them about the same height. The Carrot,
Parsnip, and Hemlock, are familiar examples, which
with all other plants affecting this mode of inflorescence
are denominated umbelliferous or umbellate.

If the rays of the umbel are undivided so that each
individual ray supports but a single flower, as in the
Silkweeds Asclepias, the umbel is said to be simple,
but if the rays of the primary umbel are themselves
subdivided, so as to form and support secondary umbels,
as in the preceding examples, the umbel is then said
to be compound."*

2. CYME. Fig. 63 — The flowers of the cyme are
supported on peduncles, which issue from the common
centre and rise to the same height ; the intermediate
subdivisions being irregular. The Elder, Snow-ball and
other species of Viburnum present familiar examples
of the cyme.

3. CORYMB. Fig. 64. — In the preceding varieties
of inflorescence, the flower stalks proceed from the
same point, in which particular they differ from the
corymb. The flower-stalks of the latter arise from
the sides of a common stem, being proportionably
shorter as they originate near its extremity, so that its
flowers are finally disponed on a level with each other.
It is easy for the student who has the examples before
him, to become acquainted with these varieties, by
observing wherein they differ, and how they corres-
pond with each other, by observing theilower-stalks

* Keith-

CORYMB AND SPIKE J66'

of the umbel proceeding from the same point, and, if
at all, regularly subdivided ; by observing those
of the cyme, also arising from the same point but irre-
gularly branching, while those of the corymb, arise
from a common stem, some nearer to its extremity than
others, but terminating on the same level. And if he
will examine the flowers of the Apple and Pear,
he will find they differ only in their respective ar-
rangements, the Apples being disposed in an umbel,
and the Pear furnishing a good example of the
Corymb.

4. FASCICLE. — An assemblage of flowers more
densely arranged than in the corymb, but otherwise
disposed in a similar way, constitutes the fascicle. The
Sweet- William presents examples which correspond
with the above definition, but they might be conven-
iently classed with the corymbose flowers.

5. SPIKE. Fig. 65. — The spike is an assemblage of
flowers arising from the sides of a common stem. In
some cases the flowers are sessile, as in the Herds-
graSs. but the term applies also to flowers which stand
on short stalks as in Common Lavender, and different
species of Orchis. " The spike generally grows erect.
Its mode of expansion is much more progressive than
that of the raceme, so that along period elapses be-
tween the fading of the lowest flowers, and the opening
of the upper ones. The flowers are commonly all
crowded close together, or if otherwise they form
separate groups, perhaps whorls, when the spike is
said to be either interrupted or whorled ; as in some
Mints."

The spike is either simple and undivided, as in Agri-
mony, or it is compound, as in some species of Laven-
der.

166 INFLORESCENCE.

The term Spikelet, is applied exclusively to grasses
that have many florets in one calyx, and the filiform
receptacle to which these florets are attached is de-
nominated the Rachis.

6. RACEME. Fig. 66. A Raceme or cluster differs
from the spike only in the length of its individual flower-
stalks which are also in this case attached to the sides oi
a common stem. The Currant is a fine example of a
cluster^ which more frequently than any other falls
within our observation. It is unilateral in the Scull-
cap Scutellaria lateriflora ; terminal in the Cohush Ae-
tata Americana ; lateral in the Currant, and compound
in the Woody Nightshade.

7. HEAD. Fig. 67. — This is an assemblage of flow
ers upon the extremity of the branch or stem, and ar-
ranged in a globular, oval or cylindrical form. It oc-
curs in the Globe Amaranth, and in several species of
the Trifolium or Clover.

. 8. WHORL. Fig. 68. — An assemblage of flowers sur-
rounding the stem or its branches constitutes the whorl.
It occurs in the Mint, and in many of the Labiate plants.
9. PANICLE. Fig. 69. — When the flowers are ar-
ranged on a stalk variously and repeatedly subdivided,
as in the Oat, their inflorescence constitutes the Pani-
cle. In the grasses the branches of the panicle are some-
what verticillate, being diffuse or loosely spreading, or
dense and crowded ; sometimes nodding and sometimes
erect.

10. THYRSE.— The flowers of the Thyrse are ar-
ranged like those of the panicle, the branches of the
pedincle being short and the flowers more compact, as
in the Lilac and Prim.

11. AMENT or CATKIN. Fig. 71.— Like the Spike,
fhe flowers of the Catkin are arranged along the side

SPADIX. 167

of a common filiform receptacle, as in the Walnut and
Birch. In the Ament the flowers stand on chaffy scales,
which scales are deciduous in the White Birch, and per-
sistent in the Pine, growing with thi seed, and forming
the cone, Fig. 72. In the Plane tree the catkins are
globular, in the Hop they are oval, in the Birch they
are cylindrical ; being sometimes covered with wax,
sometimes smooth, and sometimes hairy. The Euro-
pean and the American forests present numerous exam-
ples of the catkin, while the spike usually occurs in
the herbaceous plants.

12. SPADIX. — A columnar receptacle, usually ari-
sing from a sheath, and supporting a number of sessile
flowers, constitutes the Spadix. In Dragon root Arum
'riphyllum, the flowers are attached only to its base ;
In Pothosfoetida, they crown the summit of the column
which sustains them.

In each of the above examples, the Spadix rises from
the bosom of a singular spathe, Fig. 101 ; but in the In-
dian corn it is enclosed by leaves, popularly denominat-
ed the husks ; in the Sweet-flag it is naked, and in the
Palms it is branched.

CHAPTER XII.

FLOWER.

By Linnaeus the Flower and Fruit were classed to-
gether, and defined to be a temporary part of vegeta-
bles, destined for the reproduction of the species, ter-
minating the old individual, and beginning the new.
These constitute the reproductive organs, by which
the species have been hitherto preserved from extinc-
tion, and by which alone they will be renewed, so long
as seed time and harvest continue. " A plant may be
destitute of stems, leaves, or even roots, because if
one of these parts be wanting, the others may perform
its functions, but it can never be destitute of those or-
gans by which its species is propagated. Hence, though
many individual plants may be long without blossoms,
there are none, so far as nature has been thoroughly
investigated, that are not capable, in favourable circum-
stances, of producing them, as well as seeds ; to whose
perfection the blossoms themselves are altogether sub-
servient."* No part of the vegetable displays such a
variety of colours, or exhales a more pleasant perfume
than the flower : it gives to most ornamental plants their
greatest charm, and is the peculiar object of the flor-
ist's attention. But as we require not the aid of Botany
to discover that the perfume is delightful, and the colour
rich or gay, so we need not the aid of technical names
to express their very obvious qualities. It is conven-

* Smith.

CALYX.

169

ient for the student who wishes to gain any adequate idea
of these organs, to dissect different flowers, and be
stow upon each part a separate examination. He will
find externally the calyx usually of a green colour, and
often wanting ; the Corolla, or as it is sometimes term-
ed, the Blossom, assuming various shades of colour,
exhibiting a more delicate texture than the preceding,
and like it sometimes wanting ; the stamens, which are
filiform organs arranged interior to the corolla, and are
never wanting ; and the pistils, arising from the centre
of the flower, and containing the rudiments of the
fruit.

1. CALYX.

The external covering of the flower, which often
serves the purpose of a temporary bud, is denominat-
ed the calyx. It secures the more tender organs with-
in it from injury, and probably like the leaves serves to
elaborate the sap which goes to the nourishment of the
flower stalk. The following are Upmost important
varieties of calyx.

Monophyllous, when it is composed of a single leaf,
as in the English Cowslip, Fig. 22.

Parted, when divided into segments, by incisions
which extend nearly to its base, as in the Lime tree.

Cleft, when divided as in the preceding case, bui
with incisions less deep, as in the Cherry and Peach
trees.

Toothed, when the margin of the calyx is beset with
teeth, as in the Soapwortand Pink.

Polyphyllous, Fig. 76, when the calyx is composed of

several distinct leaves or scales, as in the Magnolia.

In all these cases, it is necessary to ascertain the nunv
16

170 FLOWER.

ber of the teeth, segments, or leaves, unless they
are numerous and indeterminate.

Double, Fig. 84, when it is composed of two distinct
rows of leaves or scales which enclose each other, as
in the Mallows. If the exterior scales are very small,
the calyx is said to be calyculate.

Common, Fig. 73, when it encloses several florets,
as in the Dandelion and Sun flower.

The calyx is cylindrical, as in the Garden Pink ;
prismatic, in the Monkey-flower; urceolate, as in the
Rose ; ventricose or inflated, as in the Catch-fly ; turbi-
nate or top-shaped, as in the Syringa ; imbricate, Fig.
73, as in the Asters ; dry and scariose, as in Everlast-
ing ; hooked, as in the Burdock ; and spinous, in the This-
tles. It is persistent, in the Syringa, and remains attach-
ed to the fruit ; deciduous, in the Lime-tree, falling with
the other parts of the flower, and caducous, in the Pop-
py, falling before them.

GLUME. Figs. 82, 83.— The peculiar Calyx of grass-
es is denominated glume, and the pieces of which it is
composed are termed its valves.

In studying the grasses it is necessary to observe the
number of the valves which compose the calyx, and
the number of flowers which the calyx encloses.

SCALE. — In some cases the calyx consists of a mere
scale to which the more essential parts of the flower
are attached, and by which they are protected previous
to their expansion. Several of these scales being at-
tached to a filiform receptacle, constitute the catkin,
Fig. 71, and when permanent, they at last form a cone,
as in the Pines, Fig. 72.

For the sake of accurate discrimination, it is some-
times necessary to observe the form of the scale, and
also its peculiar arrangement and duration.

1 i 1

" The knowledge of the uses of leaves," says Dr.
Smith. " may throw some light upon that of the calyx.
Besides protection of the flower from external injuries,
which is one evident use of this part, it appears highly
probable, that it may often contribute to the growth and
strength of the stalk which supports it, as the leaves
do to that portion ofthe branch below them. The stalk
often swells considerably during the growth ofthe flow-
er, especially just below the calyx, becoming more
woody ; an alteration frequently necessary for the sup-
port of the ripening fruit. When the calyx falls very
early, as in the poppy tribe, I cannot find that the
flower-stalk is subsequently enlarged, nor in any man-
ner altered ; while in genera without number, whose
calyx is permanent, the stalk becomes not only more
woody, but often considerably thickened."

Involucre Fig. 62. Nearly allied to the calyx are
those leaf-like appendages, which frequently enclose
the rays of the Umbel. To these leaves, botanists
apply the term Involucre ; and by Linnseus they were
regarded as a common calyx, placed at a distance from
the flowers. He adopted this opinion from necessity
rather than choice, being compelled to resort to the
involucre, for those characters which are usually de-
rived from the calyx ; but this necessity has been re-
moved, and the involucre now ranks as a floral leaf,
being restricted by some writers to the umbelliferous
plants, and applied by others to similar organs occurring
in some ofthe Cornels and Grasses.

When the leaves arise from the base ofthe primary
branches ofthe umbel, they constitute the general i?i-
volucre, but when they arise from the base of the
secondary branches and enclose the partial umbels, the
involucre is said to be partial. In Lovage both are

172 F101VER.

present, in Parsnip neither ; and when present, they
either entirely invest the peduncle, or are dimidiate,
being attached to one side, leaving the other naked.

Spathe Fig. 101. — " The Spathe is a floral leaf issuing
from the upper extremity of of the stem or scape, and
enveloping one or more flowers by the union or convo-
lution of its edges, which open as the flower expands.
The term is restricted by some Botanists to such plants
only as produce their fructification on a spadix, as the
Arum or Palms ; but by others it is used with greater
latitude, being applied also to the sheath which invests
the unexpanded flowers of the Narcissus and similar
liliaceous plants, in which application of the term there
seems to be no impropriety. Linnaeus indeed regarded
and arranged the Spathe as a species of calyx ; but
for reasons analagous to those excluding the involucre
from the rank of calyx, the spathe is excluded from
that rank also."*

In Narcissus, it encloses a solitary flower, in Jonquil
several, and in Arum, it contains an assemblage of ses-
sile flowers surrounding the base of the spadix.

In most cases the spathe consists of a single leaf,
which in Arum triphyllum is inflected and striped, in
Calla palustris white and spreading ; spongy and spot-
ted in Skunk's Cabbage ; and membranaceous in Snow
drop and in most liliaceous plants.

The leaves which enclose the ears of Indian Corn,
(in New England termed the husks) are to be regarded
as a singular variety of spathe closely investing the
spadix until its seeds are mature.

Bracte or Floral leaf. This is a leaf-like appendage
to the Peduncle or flower. When it closely invests

* Keith-.

COROLLA. 173

the flower and assumes the appearance of the calyx, it
is somewhat difficult to decide, whether it be a bracte
or not. In such cases if it falls with the other parts of
the flower ; it is to be regarded as a calyx, but if it re-
mains attached the the fruit till the leaves begin to fade
as in the common Fennel flower JVigella Damascena, it
is considered to be a bracte.

This organ assumes a great variety of forms, being Ctf(*
green in the Orchis, yellowish in the Lime tree, purple
in Clary, and scarlet in Bartsia coccinea or Painted
cup. The coloured bracte of the latter is very con-
spicuous in our meadows during the spring months, and
is usually mistaken for the blossom, which in that plant
is without beauty and secluded from our view.

The floral leaf of the Lime tree, Fig. 104, serves to
distribute the seed ; that of the Atractyiis cancellata,
Fig. 61, is spinous, and encloses and protects the calyx.

2. COROLLA.

This term is applied to the interior covering of the
flower, which is morfr conspicuous than the calyx,
more slender in its fabric, and more richly coloured.
It is white in the Blood-root ; yellow in the Butter-
cups ; orange in the Pleurisy-root and 0?*chis ciliata ;
scarlet in the Cardinal flower ; purple in the Crane's-
bill ; and blue in Borage and Spider-wort.

If the calyx invests a single corolla, as in the Peach
and Convolvulus, the flower is said to be simple ; but
when it encloses an assemblage of corollas, as in
the Dandelion and Thistle, the flower is said to be com-
pound ; and the individual corallas are denominated
florets.

The corolla is monopetalous or composed of one
* 16

174 FLOWER.

coloured leaf as in Stramonium, or is polypetalous being
composed of several as in the Pond Lilies and Magno-
lia. In the former case, we find the tube, the orifice,
and the border ; in the latter, the claw by which the
petal is attached to the receptacle, and the border,
which corresponds to the expansion of the monopeta-
lous corolla. In either case, we find flowers that are
'regular, Figs. 76 and 77, the petals being equal in size
and similar in form ; flowers that are unequal, the pe-
tals being similar, but of different sizes ; and flowers
that are irregular, Figs. 79 and 81, the petals or their
segments being unequal and dissimilar. The tube is
long and slender, as in the sweet-scented Mirabilis, or
it is twisted as in Periwincle ; the throat is closed as
Borage and Comfrey, or it is naked as in Gromwell, and
the border or limb is plaited, as in Convolvulus, and re-
flected as in the Lilies. Petals furnished with a claw
as in the Pink and wall flower, are said to be renguicu-
late.

A monopetalous corolla is,

Campanulate or bell-shaped as in the Bell-flowers.

Funnel-shaped as in the Stramonium.

Ovate as in Uva-ursi and Partridge berry.

Urceolate or Pitcher shaped, as in Whortle-berry.

Salver-shaped, having a slender tube and flat border,
as in Moss Pink and Lichnidia.

Rotate or wheel shaped, as in Loose strife and
Borage.

Tubular as in Fever-root and Trumpet Honeysuc-
kle. In the Rotate corolla, the tube, if present, is very
short, and in the tubular corolla, there is a deficiency
of the border.

Labiate or Ringent, Fig. 81, when the segments are
irregular resembling the lips of an animal. If these

COROLLA.

175

lips are closed, as in Snap-dragon and other species of
Antirrhinum, the Corolla is termed personate. In these
cases the upper lip is usually concave or vaulted, the
other being larger and frequently cleft, but when this
arrangement is reversed as in Figwort, the corolla is
said to be resupinate.

A polypetalous corolla is

Cruciform, when composed of four petals which are
arranged in the form of a cross, as in Cabbage and
Wall-flower.

Liliaceous, Fig. 77 when it is composed' of six petals,
usually naked, and so arranged as to appear bell-
shaped.

Rosaceous, when it consists of five petals which are
(usually) inserted into the Calyx, without the interven-
tion of claws, as in the Apple and Rose.

Papilionaceous, Fig. 79, when it consists of four pe-
tals, irregular and assuming the shape of a butterfly.
The Pea furnishes an example, and the large petal
which encloses the others is the Standard, the two lat-
eral petals are the Wings, and the other which is inte-
rior and appearing in some instances like the keel of a
boat, is denominated the Keel.

The florets of a compound flower are Tubular as in
Cacalia, Fig. 73, and Ligidate or strap shaped as in
Dandelion. They not unfrequently both occur in the
same flower, as in the Alters.

The petals are usually deciduous and fall with the
other parts of the flower, sometimes they remain in a
withered condition, as in the Orchis and Cucumber,
sometimes they continue fresh and are termed persis-
tent, and sometimes they are caducous dropping as soon
as the flower expands.

" The whole use and physiology of the Corolla have

176 FLOWER.

not yet been fully explained. As a protection to the
tender and important parts within, especially from wet,
its use in many cases is obvious, but by no means in all.
Linnaeus imagined it to serve as wings, to waft the flow-
er up and down in the air, and so to promote the func-
tions of the Stamens and Pistils, as will hereafter be
described ; nor is this opinion unfounded.

Sprengel has ingeniously demonstrated, in some
hundreds of instances, how the Corolla serves as an
attraction to insects, indicating by various marks, and
perhaps by its scent, where they may find honey, and
accommodating them with a convenient resting place or
shelter while they extract it. This elegant and ingen-
ious theory receives confirmation from almost every
flower we examine. Froud man is disposed to think

that

" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,"

because he has not deigned to explore it ; but we find
that even the beauties of the most sequestered wilder-
ness are not made in vain. They have myriads of ad-
mirers, attracted by their charms, and rewarded with
their treasures, which very treasures would be as use-
less as the gold of a miser to the plant itself, were they
not thus the means of bringing insects about it. The
services rendered by such visitants will be understood
when we have described all the parts of a flower.

Besides the above purposes, I have always conceived
the Gorolla to fulfil some important office to the essen-
tial parts of the flower with respect to air, and especial-
ly li^ht. It not only presents itself in a remarkable man-
ner to the sun-beams, frequently closing or drooping
when they are withdrawn, but it is so peculiarly dis-
tiu^uished by beauty or brilliancy of colour, that one
cannot but think its functions somewhat different from

COROLLA. 177

those of the leaves, even with regard to light itself.
And when we consider the elaborate and peculiar se-
cretions of a flower, the elastic and inflammable pollen,
the honey, and the exquisitely volatile perfume, as we
know from the curious discoveries of modern chemistry
how great a share light has in the production of such ,
we cannot but conclude that the petals must be of pri-
mary importance with respect to their secretion by its
means."*

Like the calyx, the corolla is sometimes wanting, and
hence we have the distinction of naked and apetalous
flowers. But it is not always easy to determine when
a flower has but one envelope, whether it be a calyx or
corolla. The green colour and coarse texture of the
former, and the vivid hues and slender fabric of the latter,
^appear in most cases abundantly sufficient to decide the
question. But the calyx is not always green, nor is the
corolla always gay and lively ; and the exceptions are
so numerous as to invalidate every rule established on
such a variable basis.

" Another rule of distinction suggested by Ray was,
that the corolla is deciduous, and the calyx permanent ;
and the rule is, no doubt, of pretty general applica-
tion ; but is loaded with far too many exceptions to be
a good one. In the Poppy the calyx falls before the
blossom, and in the Hyacinth and Star of Bethlehem
the corolla is persistent.

It had been an opinion of Caesalpinus, that the calyx
is merely a continuation of the outer bark of the plant
or flower-stalk ; and upon this foundation Linnaeus es-
tablishes a test, apparently sufficient to distinguish the
calyx from the corolla in all doubtful cases. For, im-
proving upon the notion of Caesalpinus, he apprehend-
* Dr. Smith.

378 FLOWER.

ed that as the calyx is a continuation of the outer bark
of the flower-stalk, so the corolla is a continuation of
the inner bark. And hence, if of these two organs
only one is present, we have but to ascertain in what
part of the bark it originates, in order to say which it
is. This summary and decisive test looks indeed very
beautiful in theory ; but the observations of the acute
and sagacious Hedwig have shown that it is not found-
ed in fact.

Linnaeus does not indeed impose it as a rule of prac-
tice, being furnished with what he might, perhaps, re-
gard as a better ; though the distinction is both clearly
and confidently stated in his work. But it has been
since adopted, with all its imperfections upon its head,
as the grand test of discrimination in this doubtful case,
even by the celebrated Jussieu himself, the first botan-
ist of the present age. In consequence of the adoption
of this opinion, Jussieu has been led to regard as a ca-
lyx, the beautiful blossom of the Tulip, and other lili-
aceous plants, which has been, by the common consent
of all other botanists whatever, regarded as a corolla."*

The student therefore, who in the study of natural
orders, seeks the guidance of that learned naturalist,
will bear in mind, that what other writers term the co-
rolla, is the petaloid calyx of Jussieu. By applying
his own terms as he has defined them, we shall avoid
much unnecessary confusion ; and it becomes immate-
rial whether the splendid blossoms of liliaceous plants
rank with the calyx or corolla. t And indeed it has been

* Keith,
t Jussieu has defined the corolla to be that covering of a flow-
er which is invested by the calyx ; rarely naked, being a contin-
uation of the liber or inner bark of the flower-stalk, not of the
epidermis ; crowning, but not united to the fruit ; its petals or
segments usually equalling, and alternating with the stamens,

NECTARY

179

justly observed, that in these plants the two organs are
usually united into one, the exterior being green and
coarse like the calyx, and the other delicate and colour-
ed as in the Bethlehem Star.

NECTARY. — This term is applied to that part of the
flower " which contains, or which secretes honey.'' In
some instances, it is merely a depression or groove in
the tube of the corolla ; in others it is distinct from the
petals, being attached to different parts of the flower,
and assuming a great variety of shapes.

In the cruciform flowers, the nectary is glandular,
and situated at the base of the stamens ; where it may be
detected by its green colour. In the Violet and Orchis
it is a production of the corolla, assuming the form of
a spur. The petal to which the spur-shaped nectary
is attached is termed calcarate.

In Ranunculus itis a scale attached to the base of the
petal ; and in Nasturtion itis a production of the colour-
ed calyx. *

In the Monk's hood the situation as well as the form
of these organs is very singular ; one of its petals being
concave conceals a pair of hooded nectaries, Fig, 88, from
which a slight pressure causes the honey to exude.

Other appendages are regarded as nectaries, though
it has not been ascertained that they secrete or contain
honey. One of these is the arch or vault, which closes
the orifice of the tubular corolla, as in Borage and
Comfrey ; another is the beard, which is very conspic-
uous in the Iris, Menyanthes and Partridge-berry, ari-
sing in each case from the inferior surface of the corol-
la ; another is the corollet, which surmounts the blos-
soms in the form of a crown. In Narcissus this crown
is bell-shaped, its border being in some of the species
beautifully tinged with red. The nectary of the Pas-

180 FLOWER.

sion-flower, Fig. 20, is composed of several filiform
appendages, which arise from the base of the flower in
three concentric circles, and form a triple " crown of
glory."

In the Grasses the nectary is very delicate and often
transparent, being filiform in many of the Rushes, Figs.
74 and 75, and resembling a scale in other examples:
These are the Involucellate filaments, (Setce) frequently
described by Mr. Nuttail in his kk Genera of North
American plants". The same writer has used the
term Lepanthium to designate the petaloid nectaries of
Linnaeus. He applies it to the crown of the Narcissus,
to the hooded nectaries of the Silkweeds, Fig. 87, to
the hornlike appendages of the Columbine and Lark-
spur, and to the singular organs which have been al-
ready noticed in the concave petal of the Monk's hood.
He also applies it to the nectaries of Parnassia, which
arise from the petals, and terminate in three filaments,
as in Parnassia Caroliniana or in several Fig. 80, as in
Parnassia palustris. Each of these filaments is tipped
with a yellow summit, which the inexperienced botanist
would be apt to confound with the adjacent stamens,
but if he traces them to their origin his mistake will be
at once corrected. The nectary furnishes a receptacle
for the honey which is secreted by the flower ; but
there has been much diversity of opinion respecting
the uses of this secretion. Some regard it as the food
by which the surrounding organs are nourished, or by
which the unripe seeds are perfected ; but others, and
among them Dr. Smith, believe " that the sole use of
the honey with respect to the plant is to tempt insects
who in procuring it scatter the dust of the anthers, and
fertilize the flower."

FLOWER. 181

3. STAMENS.

These are the slender filiform organs, which occm
immediately within the corolla. In the Mountain
Balm there are two ; in the Holly there are four ; in
the Lily Fig. 58 there are six ; in the American
Laurel there are ten ; and in the Peach, Magnolia and
Rose, there are numerous stamens ; and the numhev
of these, often determines to which of the Linneean
classes any plant belongs. Examined separately, each
stamen is usually found to consist of two parts ; the
summit or anther, and the filament, by which it is ele~
vated above the calyx, corolla, or base of the flower ;
the former beiDg essential, and the latter a subservient
organ, which like the corolla is occasionally wanting.

The Filaments are usually smooth and slender ; but
in Spider wort they are covered with down ; in Beth-
lehem star they are lanceolate, and in some few plants
they are so expanded as to resemble petals. The
broad filaments of one species of Clematis, have by
some writers been mistaken for the narrow petals of
an Atragene, but its plumose seeds, and the whole as-
pect of the plant, establishes its identity with the for-
mer. When the filaments are enclosed in the tube of
the corolla, they are said to be inserted, as in Lichni-
dea ; exserted, when they pass beyond it ; and declinate
when they curve towards the inferior side of the flow-
er, as in the. Hemerocaliis or Day Lilies.

In the Barberry, the filaments are sensitive, spring-
ing forwards towards the centre of the flower, when
touched on their inner surface near the base. In all
cases they are evidently designed to elevate the anthers
above the base of the flower, to expose them to the

17

182 FLdWLK.

winds, and like the petiole of the leaf, to facilitate the
motion of the organs with which they are connected.

The anther, which is the only essential part of the
stamen is generally of a membranous texture ; consist-
ing of two cells which open laterally, as in the Lily, or
at the summit as in the Pyrola and the Heaths. In the
stamens of most flowers, each filament is tipped with a
solitary anther ; but in Fumaria, there are three an-
thers to each filament, and in the Theobroma, (the
plant from which chocolate is procured) there are five.
When the stamen is destitute of a filament, the anther
is said to be sessile. In Parnassia when the flower
first expands, the anthers are all sessile ; but they
gradually and successively rise above the germen, in
consequence of the growth of their respective fila-
ments. The anthers are said to be connivent, when
they approach and even come in contact with each
other, as in Violets ; adnate when they are firmly
united to the filament ; and versatile, when loosely at-
tached to its summit, and turning with the slightest
breath of air.

" The Pollen or dust, is contained in the Anther*
from which it is thrown out chiefly in dry warm weath-
er, when the coat of the latter contracts and bursts.
The Pollen, though to the naked eye a fine powder,
light enough to be wafted along by the air, is so cu-
riously formed, and so various in different plants as to
be an interesting and popular object for the micro-
scope. Each grain of it is commonly a membranaceous
bag, round or angular, rough or smooth, which remains
entire till it meets with any moisture, being contrary
in this respect to the nature of the anther ; then it
bursts with great force, discharging a most subtle
vapour. In the Orchis family, and some other plants,

PISTIL.

18S

the pollen is of a glutinous nature, very different from
its natural aspect. This forms yellow elastic masses,
{Pollinia) often stalked, in each cell of the anther, and
the cells are either parallel and close together, or re-
moved from each other to the opposite sides of the style.
In Asclepias, the pollen is borne in 5 pair of glutinous
masses, exactly as in the Orchis, by 5 glands upon the
stigma. Some obscurity arises from each mass of pol-
len being received into a cell, (Antheridium) formed
by a peculiar valvular apparatus that encircles the
organs of impregnation, and bears a great resemblance
to stamens."*

4. PISTIL.

Between the stamens we find the pistils, equally es-
sential in the economy of vegetation, and equally neces-
sary to the completion of the flower. In the Lily there
is one, and the flower is monogynous ; in grasses, and
in the garden Pink, there are two, and the flower is
digynous ; in the Elder there are three, and the flower
is trigynous ; and in the Magnolia there are several,
and the flowers are polygynous. Each pistil consists
of three distinct portions, the Ovary or Germen, the
Style and the Stigma.

" The Ovary or Germen is the lower extremity
of the pistil, supporting the style and stigma ; and con-
taining the rudiments of the future seed. If it is situ-
ated immediately upon the base or receptacle of the
flower, as in Arbutus, it is said to be sessile ; if it is
supported upon a pedicle elevating it above the base
of the flower, as in the Poppy and Caperbush, it is

* Smith.-

164

T LOWER.

said to be stipitate ; if it is situated below the insertion
of the calyx, as in the Rose and Apple it is said to be
inferior ; if it is situated above the insertion of the calyx
and enclosed within it, it is said to be superior, as in the
Primrose ; and if it is situated partly above and partly
below the insertion of the calyx, it is said to be semi-
superior, as in Saxifraga nivalis. In the genus Adoxa
it is inferior with regard to the corolla, and half inferior
with regard to the calyx.

The figure of the germen is roundish, as in the
Cherry ; or egg-shaped as in the Pink ; or oblong, as
in the Goat's-beard ; or prism-shaped, as in Wall-flow-
er ; or turbinated, as in Fescue-grass ; or compressed
as in the Vetch. In its structure it is simple, as in the
Apple and Pear : or double, as in Galium ; or divided
into four, as in Labiate flowers. It consists also of one
cell, as in the Hazel ; or of two, as in Wall flowers :
or of several, as in the Spurge and Beech. The sur-
face is generally smooth or slightly pubescent ; but
sometimes it is set with rough hairs, and sometimes
with glands.'**

The Style, which is a prolongation of the germen,
generally arises from its summit, as in the Lily ; and
sometimes from its side, as in the Rose. It is either
simple, as in the Tulip ; or mxdtiplicate , as in the
Grasses ; in which two styles usually arise from a sin-
gle germen. In the Cherry it is deciduous, falling
with the p- tals, but in the Geranium it remains attach-
ed to the fruit, and is said to be persistent.

At the summit of the style we find the Stigma ;
which is plumose, in the Grasses, Fig. 82 ; petaloid,
in the Iris ; peltate, in Water Lilies ; and radiate, as

* Keith.

RECEPTACLE. 1&5

in the Poppy. In the two last examples it is sessile,
the style being wanting ; but the stigma as well as the
germenis essential.

5. RECEPTACLE.

That part of the flower by which the others are con-
nected, and to which they are often immediately attach-
ed, is denominated the receptacle or base. In simple
flowers it is inconspicuous and cannot be seen with
advantage, until the calyx, the petals, and the other
organs are removed ; and it is interesting only as the
connecting point in which they are all united.

The receptacle of the compound flowers. Fig. 100,
is more interesting, and in studying the plants of that
natural family, we shall find a knowledge of its several
varieties very convenient, and often indispensable ;
for the most satisfactory generic characters have been
established on the peculiarity of the common recepta-
cle. It may be examined after the seeds have been
scattered by the wind, or if the florets are for-
cibly removed, the base to which they were attached
becomes exposed to our view ; the central portion
which is more frequently occupied by tubular florets.
being called the disk, while the margin whose florets
are more frequently ligulate, constitutes the ray. It
is conical and naked as in the Dnisy ; chaffy and flat
as in the Sun-flower ; convex as in Tansey : cellular
as in the Cotton Thistle ; dotted as in the Dandelion ;
and villose or hairy a- in common Thistles.

When the calyx is inserted into the receptacle be-
neath the Germen, as in the Parnassia, Fig. 85, it is
said to be inferior or dptached ; and when it is inserted
above the eerm-n. Fig. 66 as in the Apple and Mock-
Orange, it is said to be adherent or superior.
* 17

186 FLOWER.

When the Corolla is inserted into the receptacle be-
neath the germen, as in Foxglove and Stramonium, it is
termed hypogynous. When it is inserted into the calyx
and surrounds the germen, as in the Currant, it is
termed perigynous, and when it is inserted upon the
germen, as in the Trumpet honeysuckle, it is termed
epigynous.

The stamens are hypogynous as in the Poppy and
Tulip tree ; perigynous as in the Currant and Rose ;
and epigynous as in Sassaparilla and in the umbellifer-
ous plants. When they arise from the corolla they
are said to be epipetalous.

A flower furnished with both calyx and corolla is
said to be complete ; destitute of a calyx it is said to be
naked ; and without a corolla it is apetalous or incom-
plete. When the stamens and pistils both occur ia
one flower it is perfect or united ; when they occur
only in different flowers of the same species as in the
Indian Corn, the flowers are separated or diclinious,
that which bears the stamens being unfertile or barren
and that with pistils being fertile and bearing the seed.
When barren and fertile flowers both occur on the
same plant, they are said to be monoecious, if they grow
on two separate plants as in the Poplar they are dioe-
cious ; but when united and separated flowers occur in
the same species M making a sort of compound house-
hold," they are said to be polygamous.

A compound flower has numerous sessile florets sit-
uated on a common receptacle and enclosed in a com-
mon calyx. These florets are monopetalous and su-
perior, each standing on the germen or seed, and usual-
ly five cleft at the summit. They enclose five stamens
whose anthers are united into a cylinder, and hence the
compound flowers are usually termed Syngenesious,

RECEPTACLE. 187

An aggregate flower has a common receptacle whose
florets are usually on short stalks and are enclosed in
a partial calyx and have their anthers separate. The
Scabious, well known in the gardens, and the Teasel,
whose hooked seeds are employed by clothiers, furnish
examples of the aggregate flower.

The filiform receptacle (rachis) of the Grasses, and
the common base to which the scales of the catkin are
attached, have been noticed in a former chapter ; and
the columnar i eceptacle of the Arum (spadix) furnishes
an example of a peculiar variety of inflorescence but
not of an aggregate flower.

CHAPTER XIIL*

FUNCTIONS OF THE STAMENS AND PISTILS,

" The Stamens and Pistils of flowers have, from the
most remote antiquity, been considered as of great im-
portance in perfecting the fruit. The Date Palm, from
time immemorial a primary object of cultivation in the
more temperate climates of the globe, bears barren and
fertile flowers on separate trees. The ancient Greeks
soon discovered that in order to have abundant and well-
flavoured fruit, it was expedient to plant both trees
near together, or to bring the barren blossoms to those
which were to bear fruit ; and in this chiefly consisted
the culture of that valuable plant. Tournefort tells us
that without such assistance dates have no kernel, and
are not good food. The same has long been practised,
and is continued to this very day in the Levant, upon
the Pistacia and the Fig.

About the year 1676, Sir Thomas Millington, Savil-
ian Professor at Oxford, is recorded to have hinted to
Dr. Grew that the use of the Stamens was probably to
perfect and fertilize the seed. Grew adopted the idea,
and the great Ray approved it. Pontedera, however, at
Padua, ac university long famous, but then on the de-
cline, and conseq lently adverse to all new inquiry and
information, in 1720 published his Anthologia, quite on
the other side of the question.

Linnaeus, towards the year 1732, reviewed all that
had been done before him, and clearly established the

* This chapter with a few alterations is taken from_the
" Introduction" of Dr. Smith.

FUNCTIONS OF THE STAMENS AND PISTILS. 189

Tact so long in dispute. He determined the functions
of the Stamens and Pistils, proved these organs to be
essential to every plant, and thence conceived the hap-
py idea of using them for the purpose of systematical
arrangement. In the latter point his merit was alto-
gether original ; in the former he made use of the dis-
coveries and remarks of others, but set them in so
new and clear a light, as in a manner to render them
his own.

We have already mentioned, the two modes by
which plants are multiplied, and ha^e shown the im-
portant difference between them. Propagation by
seed is the only genuine reproduction of the species,
and it now remains to prove that the essential organs
of the flower are indispensably requisite for the per-
fecting of the seed.

Every one must have observed that the flower of a
plant always precedes its fruit. To this tho Meadow
Saffron, Colchicum autunwale, seems an ohjertion, the
fruit and leaves being perfected in the spring, the blos-
soms not appearing till aot'imn ; bota due examination
will readily ascertain that the seed-bud formed in au-
tumn is the very same which comes to maturity in the
following spring. A Pine-apple was once very unex-
pectedly cited to me as an instance of fruit being formed
before the flower, because the green fruit in that in-
stance, as in many others, is almost fully grown before
the flowers expand. The seeds however, the essence
of the fruit, are only in embryo at this period, just as in
the germen of an Apple blossom.

It was very soon ascertained that flowers are invari-
ably furnished with Stamens and Pistils, either in the
same individual, or two of the same species, however
defective they may be in other parts ; of which Hippu-

^90 FUNCTIONS OF THE

m, the most simple of all blossoms, is a remarkable ex-
ample. Few botanists indeed had detected them in
the Lemna or Duckweed, 60 abundant on the surface
of still waters, and Valisneri alone for a long time en-
grossed the honour of having seen them. In our days
however they rewarded the researches of the indefati-
gable Ehrhart in Germany, and on being sought with
equal acuteness, were found in England.

Plants indeed have occasionally abortive stamens in
one flower and barren pistils in another, and the Plan-
tain-tree, Musa, is described by Linnaeus as having five
out of its six stamens perfected in such blossoms as ri-
pen no fruit, while those with a fertile germen contain
only a single ripe stamen, five being ineffective. This
only shows the resources, the wisdom, and the infinite
variety of the creation. When the roots are luxuriant-
ly prolific, the flowers are in some measure defective.
Nature, relaxing as it were from her usual solicitude,
and allowing her children to repose, an<? indulge in the
abundance of good things about them. But when
want threatens, she instantly takes the alarm ; all her
energies are exerted to secure the future progeny,
even at the hazard of the parent stock, and to send
them abroad to colonise more favourable situations.

Most generally the access of the pollen is not trusted
to any accidental modes of conveyance, however nume-
rous, elaborate, and if we may so express it, ingenious,
such modes may be ; but the Stamens are for greater
security lodged in the same flower, under the protec-
tion of the same silken veils, or more substantial guards,
which shelter their appropriate pistils. This is the
case with the majority of our herbs and shrubs, and
even with the trees of hot countries, whose leaves being
always present might impede the passage of the pollen*.

STAMENS AND PISTILS. 191

On the contrary, the trees of cold climates have gen-
erally separated flowers, blossoming before the leaves
come forth, and in a windy season of the year ; while
those which blossom later, as the Oak, are either pe-
culiarly frequented by insects, or, like the numerous
kinds of Fir, have leaves so little in the way, and pollen
so excessively abundant that impregnation can scarcely
fail.

The pollen and the stigma are always in perfection
at the same time, the latter commonly withering and
falling off a little after the anthers, though the style
may remain to become an ufeful appendage to the fruit.
The Pansy, the Martynia, and many plants besides,
have been observed to be furnished with a stigma
gaping only at the time when the pollen is ripe. The
beautiful Jacobean Lily, Amaryllis formosissima, is
justly described by Linnaeus as provided with a drop of
clear liquid, which protrudes every morning from the
stigma, and about nooihseems almost ready to fall to the
ground. It is however re-absorbed in the afternoon,
having received the pollen whose vapour renders it
turbid, and whose minute husks afterwards remain up-
on the stigma. The same phenomenon takes place
several successive days.

In opposition to similar facts, proving the synchro-
nous operation of these organs, Pontedera has, with
more observation than usual, remarked that in the um-
belliferous tribe the style frequently does not appear
till the anthers are fallen. But he ought to have per-
ceived that the stigma is previously perfected, and that
the style seems to grow out afterwards, in a recurved
and divaricated form, for the purpose of providing
hooks to the seeds. It is also observable that in this
family the several organs are sometimes brought to per-

192 FUNCTIONS OP THL

fection in different flowers at different times, so that
the anthers of one may impregnate the stigmas of anoth-
er, whose stamens were abortive, or long since wither-
ed. The same thing happens in other instances. Lin-
naeus mentions the Jatropha urens as producing flowers
with stamens some weeks in general before or after the
others. Hence he obtained no seed till he preserved
the pollen a month or more in paper, and scattered it on
a few stigmas then in perfection. There can be no
doubt that, in a wild state, some or other of the two
kinds of blossoms are ripe together, throughout the
flowering season, on different trees.

A similar experiment to that just mentioned was made
in 1749 upon a Palm-tree at Berlin, which for want of
pollen had never brought any fruit to perfection. A
branch of barren flowers was sent by the post fromLeip-
sic, twenty German miles distant, and suspended over
the pistils. Consequently abundance of fruit was ri-
pened, and many young plants raised from the seeds.

Tournefort and Pontedera supposed the pollen to be
of an excrementitious nature, and thrown off as super-
fluous. But its being so curiously and distinctly organ-
ized in every plant, and producing a peculiar vapour
on the accession of moisture, shows, beyond contra-
diction, that it has functions to perform after it has left
the anther. The same writers conceived that the sta-
mens might possibly secrete something to circulate from
them to the young seeds ; an hypothesis totally subvert-
ed by f.very flower with separated organs, whose sta-
mens could circulate nothing to germens on a different
branch or root ; a difficulty which the judicious Tour-
nefort perceived, and was candid enough to allow.

Both the conjectures just mentioned vanish before
one luminous experiment of Linnaeus, of all others the

STAMENS AND PISTILS. 193

most easy to repeat and to understand. He removed
the anthers from a flower of Glaucium phosniceum :
stripping off the rest of that day's blossoms. Another
morning he repeated the same practice, only sprink-
ling the stigma of that blossom, which he had last de-
prived of its own stamens, with the pollen from anoth-
er. The flower first mutilated produced no fruit, but
the second afforded very perfect seed. His design was
to prevent any one in future from believing that the re-
moval of the anthers from a flower was in itself capa-
ble of rendering the germen abortive.

The usual proportion and situation of stamens with
respect to pistils is well worthy of notice. The former
are generally shortest in drooping flowers, longest in
erect ones. The barren blossoms usually stand above
the fertile ones, (and no plant is better calculated to ex-
hibit this arrangement than the Indian Corn) that the
pollen may fall on the stigmas. This is the more remark-
able, as the usual order of Nature seems in such plants,
as well indeed as in compound, and even in umbellif-
erous flowers, to be reversed, for the pistils are in-
variably central, or internal, in every simple flower,
and would therefore, if drawn out into a monoecious
spike, be above the stamens.

Many curious contrivances of Nature serve to bring
the anthers and stigmas together. In Gloriosa, the
style is bent, at a right angle from the very base, for
this evident purpose. In Saxifraga, and Parnassia,
the stamens lean one or two at a time over the stigma,
retiring after they have shed their pollen, and giving
place to others ; which wonderful economy is very
striking in the garden Rue, whose stout and firm fila-
ments cannot be disturbed from the posture in which

they may happen to be, and evince aspontaneous move
18

194 IRRITABLE PARTS OF FLOWERS.

ment, unaffected by external causes. The five fila-
ments of the Cock's-comb, are connected at their lower
part by a membranous web, which in moist weather is
relaxed, and the stamens spread for shelter under the
concave lobes of the corolla. When the air is dry, the
contraction of the membrane brings them together, to
scatter their pollen in the centre of the flower. The
elastic filaments of Parietaria, for a while restrained
by the calyx, as those of the lovely Kalmia, are by the
minute pouches in the corolla, relieve themselves by
an elastic spring, which in both instances serves to dash
the pollen with great force upon the stigma.

But of all the flowers, that of the Barberry-bush is
most worthy the attention of a curious physiologist. In
•his the six stamens, spreading moderately, are shel-
tered under the concave tip of the petals, till some ex-
traneous body, as the feet or trunk of an insect in search
of honey, touches the inner part of each filament near
the bottom. The irritability of that part is such, that
the filament immediately contracts there, and conse-
quently strikes its anther, full of pollen, against the
stigma. Any other part of the filament may be touched
without this effect, provided no concussion be given to
the whole. After a while the filament retires gradually,
and may again be stimulated , and when each petal, with
its annexed filament, is fallen to the ground, the latter
on being touched shows as much sensibility as ever.

I have already mentioned that any moisture causes
the pollen to explode, consequently its purpose is lia-
ble to be frustrated by rain or heavy dews. Linnaeus
observes that husbandmen find their crops of rye to suf-
fer more from this cause than barley, because in the
latter the anthers are more protected by the husks ; and
the Juniper-berries are sparingly, or not at all, pro-

PROTECTION OF THE POLLEN. 195

duced in Sweden when the flowering season has been
wet. The same great observer also remarks, what
yearly experience confirms, that Cherry-trees are more
certainly fruitful than Pear-trees, because in the for-
mer the opening of the anthers is, in each blossom,
much more progressive, so that a longer period elapses
for the accomplishment of the fertilization of the ger-
men, and there is consequently less chance of its being
hindered by a few showers.

To guard against the hurtful influence of nocturnal
dews or drenching rains, most flowers either fold their
petals together, or hang down their heads, when the sun
does not shine ; by which, their internal organs are
sheltered. In some which always droop, as the Snow-
drops, the Fritillary, the Crown Imperial, various spe-
cies of Campanula, and others, while the over-shad-
owing corolla keeps off rain, the air has free access
underneath to blow the pollen to the stigma. Nor is
this drooping caused by the weight of the flowers, for
the fruit in most of them is much heavier, and yet
stands erect on the v--ry same stalk. The papilionace-
ous flowers in general spread their wings in fine weath-
er, admitting the sun and air to the parts within, where-
as many of them not only close their petals at night,
but also derive additional protection from the green
leaves of the plant folding closely about them. The
common Bindweed, as well as the Anagallis arvensis,
and many others, are well known to shut up their flow-
ers against the approach of rain ; whence the Anugal-
lish-AS been called the Poor Man's Weather-glass. It
has been obseived by Linnieus that flowers lose this
fine sensibility, either after the anthers have perform-
ed their office, or when deprived of them artificially ;
nor do I doubt the fact. I have had rea.. on to think that,

196 EXPERIMENTS ON HEMP,

during a long continuance of wet, the sensibility of the
Anagallis is sometimes exhausted ; and it is evident that
very heavy thunder-showers often take such flowers by
surprise, the previous state of the atmosphere not hav-
ing been such as to give them due warning.

That parts of vegetables not only lose their irritabil-
ity, but even their vital principle, in consequence of
having accomplished the ends of their being, appears
from an experiment of Linnaeus upon Hemp. This is
a dioecious plant, and Linnaeus kept several fertile-
flowered individuals in separate apartments from the
barren ones, in order to try whether they could per-
fect their seeds without the aid of pollen. Some few
however remained with the barren-flowered plants,
and these ripened seed in due time, their stigmas hav-
ing faded and withered soon after they had received
the pollen. On the contrary, the stigmas which had
been out of its reach continued green and vigorous, as
if in vain expectation, nor did they begin to fade til!
they had thus lasted for a very long while. Since I
read the history of this experiment, I have found it
easy in many plants to tell by the appearance of the
stigma whether the seed be fertilized or not. The
above experiment is the more important as the abbe
Spallanzani has recorded one made by himself upon
the same species of plant, with a contrary result.
But as he has said nothing of the appearance of the
stigmas, his experiment must yield to that of Lin-
naeus in point of accuracy ; and even if his account
be otherwise correct, the result is easily explained.
Hemp, Spinach, some Nettles, &c. naturally dioecious,
are occasionally not completely so, a few latent barren
or fertile flowers being frequently found among those
of the other sort, by which provision is made against

MELONS, &C. 197

accidents, and the perfecting of a few seeds, at any
rate secured.

In general, germens whose stigmas have not received
the pollen wither away without swelling at all, but
some grow to a considerable size, and in such the sub-
stance of the seed, its skin, and even its cotyledons,
are often to be found, the embryo only being wanting.
In a Melon or Cucumber it is common to find, among
numerous p rfect seeds, many mere unimpregnated
husks. Gardeners formerly attempted to assist Nature
by stripping off the barren flowers of Melons and Cu-
cumbers, which, having no germen, they found could
not come to fruit, and were, therefore, as they suppos-
ed, an unnecessary encumbrance to the constitution of
the parent plant. But finding they thus obtained no
fruit at all, they soon learned the wiser practice of ad-
mitting air as often as possible to the flowering plants,
for the purpcse of blowing the pollen from one blossom
to the other, and even to gather the barren kind and
place it over that destined to bear fruit.

The ceconomy of various aquatic plants throws great
light upon the subject before us. Different species
of Potamogeton Pond'veed, float entirely under water,
often at some considerable depth, till the flowering
season arrives, when they rise near the surface, and
throw up their flowering spikes above it, sinking after-
wards to ripen and sow their seeds at the bottom.
The White Water Lily Nymphwa alba, is very truly
described by Linnaeus as closing its flowers in the af-
ternoon and laying them down upon the surface of the
water till morning, when it r uses and expands them,
often, in a bright day, to several inches above the wa-
ter. Aud to use the language of Alpinus the celebra-
ted stories of the Lotus turning to the sun, closing its

* 18

198 CECONOMY ©F AQUATIC PLANTS.

flowers and sinking under water, at night, and rising
again in the morning, are conformable to what every
body has observed in the Nymphcea.

But the most memorable of aquatic plants is the Va-
lisneria which grows at the bottoms of ditches in Italy,
and is not unfrequently found in the rivers of the Uni-
ted States. In this the fertile flowers stand on long
spiral stalks, and these by uncoiling elevate them to
the surface of the water, where the calyx expands in
the open air. In the mean while plenty of barren
flowers are produced on a distinct root, on short
straight stalks, from vvhich they rise like separate
white bubbl-s, suddenly expanding when they reach
the surface, and floating about it in such abundance as
to cover it entirely. Thus their pollen is scattered
over the stigmas of the first-mentioned blossoms, whose
stalks soon afterwards resume their spiral figure, and
the fruit comes to maturity at the bottom of the water.
All this Micheli has described, without being aware of
its final purpose ; so different is it to observe and to
reason !

Some aquatic vegetables, which blossom under
water, seem to have a peculiar kind of glutinous pol-
len, destined to perform its office in that situation.

The fertilization of the Fig is accomplished in a strik-
ing manner by insects, as is that of the real Sycamore,
Ficus Sycomorus. In this genus the green fruit is a
hollow common calyx, or rather receptacle, lined with
various flowers seldom both barren and fertile in the
same fig. 1 his receptacle has only a very small ori-
fice at the summit. The seeds therefore would not in
general be perfected were it not for certain minute
flies continually fluttering from one fig to the other, all

ASSISTANCE OF INSECTS IN IMPREGNATION. 199

covered with pollen, and depositing their eggs within
the cavity.

The stamens and pistils of the Aristolochia Clematitit
are enclosed in its globular base, the anthers being
under the stigma, and by no means commodiously situa-
ted for conveying their pollen to it. This therefore is
accomplished by an insect, which enters the flower by
the tubular part. But that part being thickly lined with
inflexed hairs, though the fly enters easily, its return is
totally impeded, till the corolla fades, when the hairs
lie flat against the sides, and allow the captive to escape.
In the mean while the insect, continually struggling
for liberty, and pacing his prison round and round, has
brushed the pollen about the stigma.

The ways in which insects serve the same purpose
are innumerable. These active little beings are pecu-
liarly busy about flowers in bright sunny weather,
when every blossom is expanded, the pollen in per-
fection, and all the powers of vegetation in their great-
est vigour. Tiien we see the rough sides and legs of
the bee laden with the golden dust which it shakes off,
and collects anew, in its visits to the honeyed stores
inviting it on every side. All Nature is then alive, and
a thousand wise ends are accomplished by innumera-
ble means that " seeing we perceive not ;" for though
in the abundance of creation there seems to be a waste,
yet in proportion as we understand the subject we
find the more reason to conclude that nothing is made
in vain."

It is well known that in consequence of cultivation,
the stamens are often converted into petals, and the
preceding observations teach us why full or double
flower* are so rarely fertile. They teach us too, why
the botanist, who studies the character of the plant in

200 DOUBLE FLOWERS.

the essential organ? of the flower, flies from the gaudy
productions of the garden, in which those organs are
obliterated, to the modest but more interesting orna-
ments oftbe field. It has been observed that the flow-
ers of Grasses and other plants, whose seeds are em-
ployed as food, though nourished by the richest soil,
never become double. In this respect they are very
unlike those blossoms which are cultivated for orna-
mental purposes.

CHAPTER XIV

FRUIT.

After the fertilization of the flower, the calyx, pe-
tals, stamens, and style, usually begin to fade. The
germen however remains attached to the plant, contin-
ues to expand until it reaches maturity, and then it
constitutes the Fruit. This term, which in common
language is employed in a more limited sense, denotes
seed vessels of every description, and seeds, whether
naked or enclosed in a pericarp. It is either simple, as
in the Currant ; or multiplicate, as in the Labiate plants.
Its covering is merely a thin epidermis, as in the Apple,
a bark, as in the Orange, or a shell, as in the Filbert.

1. SEED VESSELS.

The Pericarp or seed vessel is designed to convey
nourishment to the seed, to enclose and defend it from
injury, while recent, and when ripe to liberate, and of-
ten to scatter its contents to a distance.

It often separates spontaneously into several distinct
portions or valves, whose number, though constant in
the same species, is various in different plants. When
the valves are detached, we find a central pillar or col-
umn, which is denominated the axis of the fruit, and
is sometimes the receptacle of the seed. These valves
when united, either form one entire cavity, as in the
Garden Pink ; or several, as in the Stramonium, whose
seed vessels are divided by several transverse partitions,

202

FRUIT.

and form four distinct cells. The partitions sometimes
arise from the margin of the valves, sometimes from
the inner surface, sometimes from the central column,
and sometimes they are formed by the inflection of the
borders of the valves.

When the cell or the seed vessel contains one seed,
it is monospermous ; if two, it is dispermous ; if many,
it ispolyspermous.

The following are the most important varieties of the
pericarp.

Capsule, Fig. 89 This is a dry membranaceous or
woody seed vessel, usually separating when ripe into a
determinate number of valves. The Iris furnishes an
example. The peculiar capsule of the Ash and Ma-
ple, Fig. 90, which is winged, but destitute of valves,
is denominated by Gaertner, Samara ; and the capsule
of the Silk-weeds having one cell and a solitary valve,
is -denominated follicle ; both terms however are con-
sidered unnecessary.

Silique, Fig. 97. This is a long dry seed vessel, form-
ed of two valves separated by an intervening mem-
branous partition, to which the seeds are attached, as
in cruciform flowers. When the silique is very short,
as in Shepherd's-purse, Fig. 15, it is denominated si-
licle.

Legume, Fig. 99. This is composed of two oblong
valves without any intervening partition, and its seeds
are usually attached to one of its margins, as in the
common Pea. In the Tamarind it is filled with pulp,
in which the seeds are enveloped. When a legume is
internally divided by several transverse partitions into
cells, and has valves which do not finally separate, as
in Hedysarum, it is denominated a Loment. But many
writers do not employ the latter term.

SEEB VESSELS. 203

Pome, Fig. 93. The Pome or Apple is a pulpy seed
vessel, without valves, and enclosing a capsule. The
Apple and Pear are examples.

Berry, Fig. 91. This is a pulpy seed vessel, contain-
ing one or more seeds enveloped in the pulp. It be-
comes soft and juicy, as it approaches maturity, in
which respect it differs from the capsule ; and though
when young it is sometimes difficultto distinguish them,
the distinction is made with ease when they have be-
come fully ripe. The Orange and Lemon are regard-
ed as berries with a thick coat ; and the Melon, Cu-
cumber, and Gourd, are usually considered as varieties
of the Berry ; though Gasrtner separated them, and
applied a different name, (Pepo.)

Externally the Apple and Berry are alike, but in the
interior of the latter we find no capsule to separate
the seeds from the pulp of the fruit, they being imbed-
ded in its substance as in the Gooseberry and Currant.
Such is the texture and arrangement of most berries
but in the Linnaea and Trientalis the berry is dry and
juiceless, and is distinguished from the capsule only
by its want of valves. When several berries each
with one seed are united together as in the common
Raspberry, they constitute the compound berry.
There are several spurious kinds of berries whose pulp
is not properly a part of the fruit, but originates from
some other organ. Thus in the Mulberry as well as
in the Strawberry Spinach, the catyx after flow-
ering becomes coloured and very juicy, investing
the seed like a genuine berry.

In the Juniper a few scales of the fertile Catkin be-
come succulent and coalesce into a globular berry with
thr^e or more seeds, and in the Yew ; some have
thought it a calyx, others a peculiar kind of receptacle.

£04 FRUIT,

which becomes red and pulpy embracing the seed. In
the Strawberry, Fig. 96, what is commo >ly called the
berry, is a pulpy receptacle studded with naked seeds.
In the Fig, the whole fruit is a juicy calyx, or rather
common receptacle, containing in its cavity innumera-
ble florets, each of which has a proper calyx of its own
that becomes pulpy and invests the seed, as in its near
relation, the Mulberry. The paper Mulberry of China
is indeed an intermediate genus between the two, being
as it were a Fig laid open but without any pulp in the
common receptacle."*

Nut, Fig. 94. — The nut is distinguished by its hard
firm texture from the preceding varieties of seed ves-
sels. It rarely separates into valves, and never spon-
taneously separates into more than two pieces. The
Filbert and Chesnut are well known examples of nuts,
one enclosed in a leaf-like and the other in a prickly
calyx.

Drupe, Fig. 92. — Sometimes the nut is enclosed in
pulp, forming a seed vessel which externally resembles
the berry, and is denominated the drupe. The Cherry
and Peach furnish examples. Sometimes the shell of
the Drupe is separable into distant parts, each enclos-
ing a seed ; each division is termed Pyrena ; and
hence we find fruit described as dipyrenous, tripyrenous
&c, according to the number of parts into which it is
subdivided.

Strobile, Fig. 72. — The Strobile or cone is the com-
mon receptacle and scales of the Catkin, indurated and
much enlarged as in the Pine, being usually conical,
ovate or spherical. " In the mature state of the fruit,
the scales, which are now closely imbricated, cover the

* Smith.

SEEDS. 205

seeds or nuts so completely as to assume the appearance
of forming only one compact whole, and thus the stro-
bile hangs upon the tree during the whole of the winter
season, protecting the enclosed scales ; but the heats jjt
of the succeeding summer have no sooner arrived than
the scales, formerly close and compact, begin now to
shrink and separate, detaching themselves from one
another by the whole of their connected surface, and
thus forming a passage for the discharge of the seeds."

Occasionally the pericarp is wanting, when the seeds
are said to be naked. This however is not in all cases
strictly true, for they are frequently enclosed in the
permanent calyx; which supplies the deficiency of an
additional capsule.

2. SEEDS.

We have in the course of our inquiry seen the bud,
designed during the winter to protect the rudiments of
the flower ; we have seen all the efforts of the last
named organ directed to the security and fertility of
the germen, and we have seen how admirably this
germen is planned for the protection of the unripe /
seeds.

The seed therefore, to which all the other parts of
the fructification are subservient, next presents itself to
our view. On this subject, botanists look to the ex-
cellent Gsertner for instruction ; for his work " pre-
sents a most finished model of analysis, and at the same
time exhibits the most durable monument that could
have been erected, of the indefatigable industry and
profound research of its author : so minute in his inves-
tigations that nothing has escaped him, and so faithful
ia his delineations that no one has ever surpassed hin» ."

206 FRUIT.

The unripe seed is attached to its receptacle by a
system of vessels which convey to it nourishment suf-
ficient to effect the developement of its different parts.
When the seed reaches its maturity these vessels are
broken, and the place to which they were attached
remains conspicuous on the surface of most seeds. It
is denominated the Scar, (Hilum,) and near it we fre-
quently find a minute orifice through which the water
is absorbed during germination.

The exterior coat of the seed (Testa) is usually firm ;
and being formed previous to the internal organs, it com-
municates to them its peculiar figure. In the mature
Apple it is brown, in the common Bean it is white, in
the Indian corn it is straw-coloured and glossy, in the
Rice it is pellucid, and in the Fumitory it is black and
shining. During germination this integument bursts
in consequence of the enlargement of its contents. It
is not unfrequently lined with a delicate membrane
which more immediately invests the enclosed organs,
being in some cases entirely di:4inct from the exterior
covering of the seed, and often inconspicuous, in con-
sequence of its intimate union with the adjacent parts.
In examining the internal structure or kernel of the
seed, we find, what botanists denominate, the Albumen,
Vitellus, Cotyledons and Embryo.

The Albumen^ so named from its resemblance to the
white of a boiled egg, occurs in many seeds, and is
particularly abundant in the Grasses, Lilies and Palms.
It often encloses the Embryo, and has, by some writers,
been denominated the Perisperm, in allusion to its
peculiar situation, but in many cases this name is not
appropriate. During germination the albumen is dis-
solved, and converted into the first aliment of the
young plant. It is according to Gaertner, always dis-

SEEDS. ~07

tinct from the embryo, and easily detached from it,
being external in the umbelliferous plant?, internal as
in Mirabilis, and unilateral as in Knotgrass and Pink.
It is farinaceous as in Mirabilis and in most of the
Grasses, and constitutes the nutritive portion of grain
Seeds with this kind of albumen frequently have the
embryo external, and as they contain no oil, they never
become rancid. More frequently the albumen is car
nose or fleshy, as in the Lime tree ; and sometimes it is
corneous, being very bard, and resembling a horn.
" It is wanting in several tribes of plants, as those
with compound or with cruciform flowers, and the
Cucumber or Gourd kind, according to Geertner.
Sorneft.w leguminous plants have it, and a ^reat number
of others which, like them, have cotyledons besides.
We are not however to suppose that so important an
organ is altogether wanting, even in the above men-
tioned plants. The farinaceous matter, destined to
nourish their embryos, is unquestionably lodged in
their cotyledons, whose sweet taste as they begin to
germinate, often evinces its presence, and that it has
undergone the same chemical change as in Barley.
The albumen of the Nutmeg is remarkable for its
eroded variegated appearance, and aromatic quality :
the cotyledons of this seed are very small."*

Vitbllus. — This occurs between the embryo and al-
bumen, and is so closely connected with the former,
that it cannot easily be detached. It does not escape
from the shell during germination, nor does it become
a seminal leaf, but like the albumen it is entirely con-
verted into the nourishment of the young plant. In
some of the aquatic plants Ceratophylhim and Nelumbo

* Smith.

208 FRUIT.

it more resembles the cotyledons, but as it remains en-
closed in the seed during germination it is regarded as
a vitellus.

" The hypogean or sub-terrestrial cotyledons, are not
to be passed over unnoticed ; for although on account
of their regular fo.m, and the radicle being always
placed without the lobes, and not covered by their
substance, they neither can, nor ought to be separated
from the rest of the true cotyledons ; yet on account
of their incapacity for germinating and the coalition oi
iheir lobes into one body, as in the Horse Chesnut, they
differ so very little from the vitellus, that there is the
closest bond of affinity between these parts ; and in
general, nature, in producing these parts of the seeds,
seems to proceed from the very simple texture of the
albumen, insensibly to the more organic structure of
the vitellus, and from this to the more perfect fabric of
the cotyledons.'*

In the Grasses, this organ assumes a different form ;
and appears like a mere scale, to which the embryo is
attached on one side, and the albumen on the other.

The Cotyledons, are that portion of the seed which
encloses the embryo, and during germination, appear
in the form of leaves above the surface of the ground,
Fig. 1 10. Each seed is usually furnished with two
cotyledons, but in the Hemlock, Pinus Canadensis, there
are three, and in other species of Pine they are still
more numerous. In some cases the seed is said to
contain but one cotyledon, and the Grasses and Lilies
are referred to as examples ; in others it is said to be
without lobes, and the Mosses, and other imperfect
plants are of the number. On this subject, however,

* Gartner.

SEEDS,

200

botanists maintain very discordant opinions. Willde
now defines the cotyledons to be the entire substance
of the seed ; not including the embryo. " Nature" he
says " provided plants with their cotyledons, that they
might nourish the young plant in its tender infancy.
Never yet have I noticed a single instance where this
wise measure of nature was omitted. I examined
purposely all those plants which were said to want the
cotyledons, and always met with them. That in some
plants the existence of the cotyledons was altogether
denied, and others were said to have one only, others
two, and several plants more than two, arose partly
from inaccurate observation, partly from mistaking a
plant of the embryo for a cotyledon."

Willdenow obviously includes in his idea of cotyledons
the vitellus which most writers regard and describe
as distinct. They rarely occur in the same seed, and
it is probable that the latter is designed to supply the
place of the former, until the first leaf of the young
plant is unfolded ; and that the number of cotyledons,
though constant in the same, is various in different
seeds.

The Embryo, by Linnaeus deEominated the Corcle
is the most essential part of the seed, to which the oth-
ers are subservient, and without which it cannot be
made to vegetate. It is usually central, being enclosed
by the lobes or albumen, as in the umbelliferous plants,
or it is excentric as in Coffee, and external as in the
Grasses ; it is straight as in the Apple ; curved as in
the Kidney Bean, Fig. Ill ; erect as in the Dandelion ;
reversed as in Parsnip ; oblique as in Persimmon, Fig.
108 ; and horizontal as in the Date Palm. Each embryo
is composed of two portions, the rostel or radicle which

is first evolved during germination, and the phimirfe or
* 19

210 FRUIT,

plumelet which rises above the ground and forms the
stem and the herbage.

There are various appendages to the seed, of which
the following are particularly worthy of notice.

Pellicle. — This adheres closely to the surface of
some seeds so as to conceal their colour entirely from
our view, as in Convolvulus.

Arillus. — This is a partial or entire covering of the
seed attached merely to its base. It is soft and pulpy
in Euonymus, membranaceous and elastic in the Sorrel,
cariaceous and divided in the Nutmeg, and like paper
in Coffee. Mace which envelopes the Nutmeg forms a
partial arillus, but the minute seeds of the Orchis are
completely invested by a similar coat, giving them a
light and chaffy appearance. To this head Dr. Smith
refers the loose husky covering which invests the
seeds of Carex which has besides this, an additional
coat not found in the seeds of other grasses.

Pappus or Down* — This term is applied to the
chaffy, feathery or hairy crown of many naked seeds
arising from the partial calyx, and remaining till the
blossom has fided.

In the Dandelion and Salsify it is elevated on a stalk
and termed stipitate ; in the Thistle it is sessile ; in
the Cacalia it is pilose resembling hairs ; and in Salsify
it is plumose or feathery. In Burr Marygold it is formed
of several barbed bristles which cling to our clothes
as soon as the seeds are mature. " The use of this
organ," says Dr. Smith, " is evidently to transport seeds
to a distance from their native spot, either by r* sign-
ing them to the power of the wind, or by attaching them

* The French, and some English writers copying them, term it
Aigrette.

SEEDS. 211

to the shaggy coats of animals. In due time the feath-
ery down separates and leaves the seed behind it, which
happens sooner in the Thistle than in most other
plants, and hence the vacant down of that genus is fre-
quently seen wafted in light masses over a whole coun-
try, which has not escaped the notice of Poets."

Some writers apply the same term to the feathery
crown of seeds which are enclosed in a capsule, as in
the Oleander and Silk-weeds, and to the down which
envelopes the seeds of the Cotton grass and Willows.
Similar to these is the down which covers the seeds of
the Cotton Plant, and is enclosed like that of the Silk-
weed in a Capsule, which opens as the seeds are ma-
tured.

Tail, Fig. 105. — This is the permanent style which
remains attached to some seeds, and assumes a feathery
or hairy appearance as in the Traveller's Joy and oth-
er species of Clematis.

Beak, Fig. 102. — This term is applied to an elonga-
tion of the seed vessel, as in Geranium, Crane's-bill,
and to the slender summit of some naked seeds as in
Sweet Cicily and other umbelliferous plants.

Awn, Fig. 63. — The awn is usually an appendage to
the flower and seeds of grasses, but is sometimes_ap- ' £
pli ed to the be ak of naked^ jseeds. It is usually attach- •
ed to the coroll i, and arises from its base as in Foxtail
Grass, or from it* extremity as in Rye ; being straight x
as in Hair-grass, contorted and spiral as in the Oat,
and plumose in the Feather-grass. The contorted
Awn possesses the property of an' hygrometer, coiling
in dry wpather and again extending itself when the at-
mosphere is rilled with vapour.

Wing. — This is a membraneous apppndage to seeds
or their capsules, Fig. 90. The Catalpa furnishes an

21fc DISPERSION 01

example of the latter, and the Ash and Maple of the
former. The seeds of Bignonia, present still more
perfect examples of winged seeds, enclosed in a cap-
sule, and the naked seeds of many umbellate plants
have an alated or winged margin.

Seeds are sometimes furnished with spines, hooks,
and various other appendages all designed for their se-
curity while living, and for their subsequent dispersion.

" In general, however, smoothness is characteristic
of a seed, by which it best makes its way into the soft
earth, though it is sometimes barbed, or at least its
covering, as in the Feathergrass, that it may not easily
be withdrawn again by the powerful feathery appen-
dige of that plant, which after having by its circum-
volutions forced the seed deeper and deeper, breaks
off a joint, and flies away."*

The Dispersion of seeds is so intimately connected
with these appendages, that the examination of the one
imperceptibly leads to the contemplation of the other.
Destitute of this inherent power, they would fall
around the parent stem in such a situation as to pre-
vent their growth, and probably to terminate the exis-
tence of the tribe. The means of dispersion are all
too curious, and the subject is too important to be pass-
ed by unnoticed.

Water is one of the vehicles' by which they are con-
veyed to a distance from their original habitation.

By the currents of the ocean, the seeds of West
India vegetables are frequently conveyed to the coast
of Norway where they refuse to grow merely in con-
sequence of the unfavourable climate in which they
are deposited.

* Smith

3E£Db. 213

In this way the plants of Germany find access to
Sweden, and those of Spain and France are scattered
over the shores of England.

In these cases the difference of climate is not so
great as to prevent the growth of seeds which have
thus emigrated from their native country. On the
banks of the Connecticut we frequently meet with
plants which probably descended with its current from
the mountains among which it takes its rise ; plants
whose seeds ripened in Canada, and emigrated to a
more temperate climate.

Winds also contribute to the dissemination of seeds.
We have seen how well many of them are adapted to
expose a large surface to its action, and we have often
observed them sailing through the air, in pursuit of a
new and distant home. It is scarcely necessary to
refer to the winged capsules of the Maple and the
Ash, which, in connexion with the seeds are pro-
pelled by the wind to a distance from their respective
trees. Nor is it necessary to say how effectually the
same object is secured by the winged seeds of the
Catalpa and Pine, which, in a similar way are elevated
and propelled through the air.

Some seeds, like those of the Staphylea, are enclos-
ed in an inflated calyx, more resembling a balloon than
a sail, but equally effectual in diffusing over the globe
the seeds which they enclose. But the feathery
crown which invests the seeds of Compound flowers
affords a more beautiful specimen of mechanism than
any of these, and it is brought into operation through
the agency of dry air at the very moment best suited
for their dispersion. Aided by this, the Erigeron of
Canada has travelled from America to Europe, and
thence it has been diffused over the eastern continent.

214

DISPERSION OF

Aided also by this, the Dandelion, a native of Europe,
has diffused itself over every part of our country ;
neither impeded by the broadest rivers nor intercep-
ted by the loftiest mountains, it has already passed the
Allegany and become a tenant of the woods of Ohio.
The minuteness of some seeds facilitates their disper-
sion by the wind, and it is found that those which are
most minute are most extensively diffused. It is
chiefly on this account that Mosses and Ferns are more
widely scattered than those whose seeds are large.
Swartz found in Jamaica the same Moss which he had
been accustomed to gather when climbing the mountains
of Europe, and there too the same Ferns which he had
frequently seen in France, though the other plants
were all new and peculiar.

Indeed, it seems that there is no place so remote, but
seeds like these are capable of reaching it ; no moun-
tain so high, but they lodge on its very summit ; no
cavern so deep, but they penetrate its unmeasured re-
cesses ; where, surround >d by many impediments to
vegetation, they germinate, and at last fill the atmos-
phere with the seeds of another race.

When the seeds of Balsamine are ripe, the capsule
suddenly opens, and scatters its contents abroad ; and
the seeds of the common Crane's-bill are thrown to a
distance, by the elasticity of the beak, to the base of
which they are attached.

The seed-vessels usually open when the atmosphere
is dry, and the sky unclouded, that no vapour may
collect on the wings of the seed, and impede its pro-
gress. B.:t to this rule the Ice-plant furnishes a re-
markable exception. The ornament of a sandy desert,
where few other plants are capable of existence, its
seeds would be planted in vain, if at an untimely sea-

SEEDS. 215

son ; and accordingly its capsules open, when the rain
would cause others to close ; and its seeds are disper-
sed at the only time when their germination could be
effected.

Here too we should mention the seed of the Walk-
ing or Animated Oat, Avena sterilis, whose awn is made
to move by the slightest variation of atmospheric va-
pour. It is not unfrequently found at a distance from
where it was originally deposited, marching with con-
stant step till it has penetrated the earth ; and even
then its progress is arrested only by the equal moisture,
which causes its seed to germinate, and fixes it to the
soil.

Allied to the Walking Oat — equally alive to the vari-
eties of moisture, is the beak of the Erodium moscha-
turn, or Musk Geranium. While it remains attached to
the style, it is straight, but coils up after it is ripened,
whenever it is placed in a dry situation ; but water has
the power of extending it to its former shape. The
hairs with which the seed is invested, facilitate its en-
trance into the earth, and prevent its return ; so that
the whole economy of the seed is too curious to be
overlooked.

The fruit of many plants being the food of animals, they
in various ways scatter the seeds abroad. The Squirrel
fills his storehouses with a stock of winter's food ; but
he is either destroyed, or forgets where his treasures
were deposited, till they are no longer desirable food.
Here his nuts are permitted to germinate, and the very
means which threatened to destroy, are made to pre-
serve the trees to which they belong. Birds also lay
up a store of food for themselves and their young.
While the Hollanders were in possession of the Spice
Islands, they endeavoured to destroy the Nutmeg?

216 DISPERSION OP

which they could not defend ; and before they relin
quished any of their possessions, they carefully rooted
out this, their most valuable production. But notwith-
standing the vigilance and the jealousy of the Dutch,
birds disseminated the seeds of the Nutmeg over these
very islands, evidently indicating, that nature will not
acknowledge the improper restrictions, which man
would make supreme.

The hooks of the Sanicle and Cleavers attached to the
fleeces of the flock, are frequently carried to a distant
town, where they germinate and grow. " When
young," says Mirbel, *' I accompanied Raymond in his
excursion to the Pyrenees, where that learned natural-
ist pointed out to me these deserters from the plains be-
low. They grew on the remains of ruined hovels,
where they kept their stations in defiance of the seve-
rity of the winters, and remained as memorials to at-
test the former presence of man and his flocks."

The seeds of aquatic vegetables adhere to the feath-
ers of the birds who visit them, till at last they are de-
posited in some distant lake. There is no place so re-
mote, but the Water Lily gains access to it; though its
set j ds cannot, like those of other vegetables, gradually
extend their dominion from one place to another.

But more than birds and animals — more than wind
and tide, man contributes to the dispersion of seeds.
Of this we shall be convinced, as we learn the history
of many well known vegetables, as we trace them from
one country to another, and observe in what way they
have been thus extensively diffused. The wars which
lod many of the European nations to the Holy Land,
brought back many of the esculent vegetables which are
seen on our tables, and many of the flowers' which
adorn our gardens. Commerce has enriched different

SEEDS.

l\

nations by an interchange of their most valuable pro-
ductions, and science has discovered in the remotest
sections of the earth, vegetables which are now diffus-
ed through countries where they were formerly un-
known. The common Stramonium, now a weed
throughout all Europe and in various parts of the
United States, was brought from Abyssinia by a class
of empyrics who pretended that its seeds were a
sovereign remedy for various diseases. Buck-wheat
and most kinds of grain were received through Italy
from the eastern nations, while the various kinds of
cultivated fruit were derived from Greece, ultimately
perhaps from the provinces of Asia. Persia is the na-
tive country of the Peach ; Arminia of the Apricot ;
and from these nations they have travelled through
Europe and at last reached this country. The Potatoe
was carried from America to Ireland by Sir Walter
Raleigh, and from thence it has found its way to almost
every section of the eastern continent. These are
but a few of the many examples which might be men-
tioned, to prove how much man has contributed to the
dissemination of seeds. The fertility of the vegetable
kingdom will warrant the conclusion, that its numerous
species have all been preserved in the midst of the dan-
gers which assailed them ; dangers too, which they have
no eyes to see, and no voluntary power to avoid.

The patience of Ray enabled him to ascertain the
number of seeds, which were produced by a single
plant of the Tobacco, and they amounted to 300,000.
Dodart with a perseverance equally worthy of our ad-
miration, ascertained that in one year a single Elm
produced more than half a million of seeds, yet com-
pared with the fertility of other plants, the Tobacco

and Elm are unproductive, for it exceeds the power*
20

218 DISTRIBUTION OF

of man to estimate the number of seeds which are en-
closed in a capsule of a Moss or on the single leaf of a
Fern.

Whenever they are less numerous, they are defend-
ed from injury by the hardness of their external coat,
by the thorns with which they are invested and by the
acrimony of their juices.

Thus productive, and thus defended, it is probable
that no family of plants now in existence, will prema-
turely cease to be. We now see how various and
yet how essential are the means which nature em-
ploys for the dissemination of plants. Seeds are liter-
ally scattered over the whole face of the globe, but
their dispersion is neither the effect of accident or
chance. The mountain has its favourite plant whose
seeds are endowed with the power of reaching its
summit, while those which delight in the valley, are
carried by opposite means to their destined abode.
The seeds of mountain plants are sometimes the food
of birds, through whose agency they reach the place
most favourable to their germination. Sometimes
they rise on the wings of their feathery crown, sail
through the air, till they reach their final home, on
the brow of some neighbouring hill. And is it not de-
lightful to observe the various means which are em-
ployed for their dispersion, to see some furnished with
wings which enable them to fly more like things of life
than tenements in which it slumbers ; to see those do-
mestic plants which linger around the dwellings of man
furnished with seeds whose hooks attach them to the
dress of every visitor, by which they are scattered at
a distance from their original locality, though near
the walks and around the habitations which they de-
light to honor ; to see the seeds of aquatic plants en-

SEEDS. 219

closed in a shell by which they can 3wim, or covered
with an adhesive substance by which they are attached
to the birds who visit them, in short, to see that
neither plant nor sparrow will fall without the notice
©f Him who gave them life and existence.

CHAPTER XV.

IMPERFECT PLANTS.

There is an extensive tribe of plants to which the
ibregoiog terms do not apply. Linnaeus, finding their
(lowers invisible, at least to the naked eye, denominated
them Cryptogamia ; and other writers, in consideration
of their simple and often defective structure, term them
Imperfect. They are usually distributed into Ferns,
Mosses, Hepaticce, Jilgcc, and Fungi, which we shall
examine in the above mentioned order.

I. FERNS.

These are usually distinguished with ease from the
more perfect plants, having their leaves, branches, and
items so united, as to constitute one organ, and usually
having the fructification on the back of the leaf. That
part which is analagous to the stem of other plants, or
perhaps to the petiole of a compound leaf, is denomi-
nated the Stipe; and the various parts united, whether
in a Fern or in other plants, constitute a Frond.

Their floral organs are very minute, and entirely
unlike the gay blossoms which adorn the landscape and
beautify the shrubs that bear them. The existence of
these organs, taken collectively, is established by the
production of seeds which grow on the back of the frond,
or on a separate spike, or at the base of the stipe, or
in the axils of the leaves.

FERNS. 221

When the fructification is in scattered patches, on the
back of the leaf, as in Polypodium, Fig. 24, the Fern is
said to be dorsiferous, in allusion to the situation of the
floral organs. Examined with a microscope, the fruit
is found to consist of a capsule usually surrounded by an
elastic transverse ring, which opens when ripe for the
discharge of the seeds. These capsules are usually
accompanied by an additional integument, named Indu-
sium. It is a thin membrane, Fig. 113, enclosing the
unripe fruit, and originates sometimes from the veins,
and sometimes from the margin of the leaf. In distin-
guishing the genera of Ferns, Linnaeus resorted to the
situation and shape of the capsules ; but Dr. Smith has
found the presence of the indusium, and the mode in
which it bursts, the best criterion for determining the
genera of Ferns ; and in connexion with the other
characters, it is "the only sure ground on which the
botanist can rely."

But the floral organs are not always cenfined to the
back of the frond, nor are the leaves and stems always
thus intimately incorporated. In Equisetum or the
Horsetail, Fig. 114, the fruit is attached to peltate re-
ceptacles, Fig. 115, which are collected into a spike,
and terminate the stem ; and its numerous seeds are
enfolded by four pollen-bearing filaments, Fig. 116,
somewhat analagous to those which occur in the flowers
of the more perfect plants.

In LycopodiumoT Ground Pine the capsules are some-
times found in the axils of the leaves and sometimes at
the summit of the stem. This family of plants is en-
tirely unlike those ferns whose herbage constitutes a
frond, and it ranks with them, only because no one has
been able to detect those organs which serve to char-
acterize the more perfect plants. In most of the
* 20

222 IMPERFECT PLANTS.

Floras which have been published in the United States-
Ferns alone, of the cryptogamic plants are included.

Their herbage is frequently very beautiful ; and
the polished Stipe of the Maiden Hair presents an ex-
ample of the glittering surface which is not surpassed
by any of the more perfect plants. The Lycopodium
is an interesting trailing vine, which retains its verdure
during the winter when it is often employed to decorate
our dwellings and our churches, serving at least to dis-
pel the gloom of one season, by reminding us of the
gaiety of another.

2. MOSSES.

Mosses constitute a second order. Though too mi-
nute to attract the notice of the passing observer, when
examined with attention, they exhibit a beauty of struc-
ture which we cannot fail to admire. They are fur-
nished with leaves and stems presenting a miniature of
the lofty forest trees, and like them usually having
their floral organs distinct. Sometimes however the
stem is wanting ; and when present, it has been ob-
served to sink into the soil, and as the oid root decays
and is converted into mould, so the old stem annually
descends into the eaith, emits radical fibres, and is con-
verted into a root.

The leaves of Mosses are very minute, being often
transparent. They arise from every side of the sfr-m,
and are linear, oval, lanceolate, pointed, and imbricate,
varying like other leaves, and Having their different
forms designated by the same terms. According to
Hedwig, the floral organs of the Mosses usually occur
on separate plants, but in some cases they are monce-
cious, having barren and fertile flowers distinct, but

mosses. 223

on the same plant. The former are the stars, which
terminate the branches Fig. 130, or the buds that sit
in the bosom of the leaves ; and the latter are the
urn shaped capsules, Figs. 117 and 129 which are usu-
ally elevated above the rest of the plant, and concealed
when young, by an exterior membrane.

The fertile flowers of Mosses present an arrange-
ment well worthy of our attention. " They are not
furnished with any integument that can be decidedly
called a calyx, though the leaves immediately sur-
rounding them, are generally different both in size and
structure from the other leaves of the plant ; in the
genus Hypnum, they are so very obviously different,
as to have obtained the proper appellation of the Peri-
chcztium, or fence, being an assemblage of loose imbri-
cated scales, rather than real leaves.

But if they are not to be regarded as the real calyx,
or part of the real leaves, they are at least to be re-
garded as floral leaves, both from their contiguity to the
flower, and analogy to the floral leaves of other plants.
In their original distribution, they form a peculiar bud,
from the centre of which the flower issues, present-
ing when first visible, the appearance of a fine and
minute point, projecting from the bosom of the leaves.

As the process of fructification advances, the parts
of the flower begin to assume a different appearance ;
the fine and pointed substances expanding into a cone,
invested by a thin membranaceous integument, which
is adherent at the summit and base, and finally sepa-
rates into two distinct portions. The under portion,
which is placed within the pcrichcetium, remains as be-
fore attached to the base of the fructification, and is
termed the sheath; while the upper portion adheres to
the summit of the capsule, and invests it, in the form

224 IMPERFECT PLANTS,

of an extinguisher, Fig. 129 a. In this state it has been
called a calyx by some botanists, and by others a corol-
la ; but its resemblance to either is so slight, as scarcely
to justify the terms. It is more generally known, how-
ever, by the appellation of the Calyptra, or veil ; a
term sufficiently expressive, of at least part of its func-
tions, masking as it does a globular or urn-shaped ves-
sel, which is the capsule of the Mosses. In some spe-
cies this capsule is sessile, but in most cases it is eleva-
ted upon a fine slender foot-stalk ; and is erect or droop-
ing, smooth or striated ; being in a young state green
or white, but at maturity becoming yellow, or red, or
brown. The mouth of the capsule is externally cover-
ed with a lid, [operculum) Fig. 129 d, assuming in dif-
ferent species a variety of forms, and detaching itself
horizontally when ripe. When this lid is removed, the
mouth of the capsule is seen, invested with a fringe
(peristomium) Fig. 118, which is usually double, occa-
sionally single, and very rarely wanting ; Fig. 129 c.
The number of the teeth of this fringe, though varia-
ble in different genera, is uniform in the same ; and it
is worthy of observation, that this number is in all ca-
ses a multiplicate of 4, being 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64.
Within the urn, there is a slender column, which pass-
es through its whole extent, and perforates both the lid
and the veil. This organ was regarded by Hedwig as
the style of the Mosses. As the urn and column are
concentric, there is an intermediate and cylindrical
cavity, filled with a powder usually brown or yellow,
and sometimes dotted or prickly. By sowing this pow-
der, Hedwig reared a crop of young Mosses, in all
respects similar to the parent plants ; thus proving be-
yond the possibility of a doubt, the nature of the dust
which he planted.

mosses. 223

Such is a short sketch of the herbage and fructifica-
tion of the Mosses, according to the observations and
discoveries of Hedwig, and of the theory founded upon
them, namely : That the Mosses are formed with all the
organs necessary to the constitution of a flower, and
producing perfect seeds ; a theory that seems at least
to be founded in fact, and that has obtained the appro-
bation of most succeeding botanists.

Mosses are very tenacious of life, and flourish in the
Coldest climate and at the coldest season of the year ;
and it is said that after they have been preserved a cen-
tury, their freshness may be restored by the mere ap-
plication of water. Their uses in the economy of ve-
getation, are greater than is commonly suspected. " Na-
ture," says Willdenow, " always takes care to use one
plant for the benefit of another ;" and those which de-
cay are taxed to support those which are to succeed
them. This remark is peculiarly applicable to the
Mosses. They vegetate on naked barren rocks, to
which their seeds have been wafted by the wind, de-
riving their nourishment from the atmosphere, and
preparing the way for plants of a greater magnitude.
Sometimes they flourish only on the summit of lofty
mountains abstracting moisture from the clouds which
encircle them, contributing to the formation of foun-
tains, rivulets, and at last majestic streams. Wher-
ever they vegetate Mosses improve the soil, and when
it becomes capable of sustaining other plants, these
disappear as if the sole end of their existence was to
fertilize the ground. They overspread the trunks of
trees which in the winter they protect from cold and
in the summer from the parching rays of the sun, nor
do they, like other parasitic plants, derive nutriment
from the trees which support them. Shrubs covered

226 IMPERFECT PLANTS.

with Moss can be removed to a distance with greater
safety than when protected in any other way, and ac-
cording to the observations of Gleditsch, they grow with
as much luxuriance when nourished merely by Moss
as when in the most fertile soil. Some Mosses thrive
only in marshy situations which they annually enrich
by the deposition of new mould. The Hercynian for-
est, once an impenetrable morass, has through the
agency of the Grey Moss Sphagnum palustris, been con-
verted into a fertile soil, and the yellow corn now
waves over the fields which have been forming for
ages. Thus we owe to insignificant mosses the largest
rivers, the draining of extensive marshes, and the fertil
ityof some barren fields.*

3. HEPATIC^.

These are small herbaceous plants whose herbage
constitutes a frond, and whose fruit like that of the
Mosses is enclosed in a capsule. The veil, however,
by which this capsule is sometimes enclosed, usually
opens at the summit, nor is it furnished with a lid,
analagous to the one we have seen in the fructification
of Mosses. This is a small and by no means interest-
ing tribe of plants. The student who wishes to gain
an idea of their singular structure, will find the com-
mon Brook Liverwort, Marchantia polymorpha an ex-
ample well calculated to exhibit the frond, but the
peltate receptacle on which its fructification is borne is
very different from the capsules of the other genera.
In Jung ermannia, Fig. 119, the capsule is four-valved,
and when the seeds are mature, these valves separate

* Willdenow.

ALGJE. 227

for their escape. They are not at present of much
utility in medicine or the arts, but their name confirms
the opinion that they were formerly employed as med*
icinesin affections of the liver.

4. ALGjE.

This term, originally applied to marine plants, has
been employed in a more extensive sense, and embra-
ces among others, the Lichens which cling to the rock,
and the Byssi which appear chiefly to delight in the
damp atmosphere of the cellar. The Lichens, consti-
tuting a very extensive order, have been investigated
with great success by the learned Acharius of Sweden,
whose works " form a new aera in this department of
our science, and will probably be the basis of all sub-
sequent improvement."* The Lichens have nothing
analagous to the root, unless we are willing to regard
a3 such, the fibres which issue from the inferior sur-
face of the frond. And in many cases the place of these
fibres is supplied by a cement which attaches the plant
so closely to the smooth rock, that we can separate
them only with difficulty. The frond, Fig. 121, (de-
nominated thallus by Acharius,) is either a leaf-like
expansion, or it is branched, and like a shrub in minia-
ture, or it is a mere crust or powder, presenting in
each case a simple structure and consisting chiefly of
gelatine and mucilage. With regard to the fructifica-
tion of Lichens, Hedwig and Gaertner, both men of pri-
mary authority, maintain very different opinions.

The former contends that he has detected in the in-
terior of the frond, small cells, which contain particle?

» Smith,

228 IMPERFECT PLANTS.

of pollen, and in the shields or targets, Fig. 122, he
found a number of oval bodies, arranged in perpen-
dicular columns, which were regarded as seeds. But
Gaertner maintains, that these substances are a peculiar
kind of gem, which he denominates propago, and de-
scribes as being '• simple gems without leaves, or re-
gular form, sometimes naked, and sometimes covered
with an envelope, which separating at length from the
parent plant," are dispersed like seeds. Gaertners
views of the subject are most probably correct.

Lichens are described by Acharius as forming a natu-
ral order, distinct from the other imperfect plants ; in
which the whole body performs the functions of an uni-
versal receptacle or thalhts, of various shapes, without
distinct root or stem, and furnished with vegetative or-
gans, by which the 6pecies is propagated. These or-
gans abound in the substance and on the surface of the
flowers, being sometimes scattered and sometimes col-
lected in nests, and existing in a separate organ (apo-
fhecium) Fig. 122, which he regarded as a partial re-
ceptacle, and to which other writers have applied the
terms saucer, shield, and cup.

" The aquatic or submersed Jllgce form a distinct and
peculiar tribe. Some of them abound in fresh water,
others in the sea, and hence the latter have been de-
nominated sea-weeds The chief genera are Ulva,
well defined by its seed organs being dispersed un-
der the cuticle throughout the membranous or gelati-
nous substance of the frond ; Fucus, whose seeds are
collected together in tubercles, or swellings of various
forms and sizes ; and Conferva, commonly known by its
capillary and jointed frond. They are in general mere-
ly fixed by the roots, their nourishment being imbibed

9VSG1. 229

by their surface ; many of them float without any at-
tachment."*

These plants, notwithstanding their simple structure,
and humble aspect, are all, important in the economy of
vegetation. Like the Mosses, they abstract nourish-
ment from the atmosphere, and by their decay enrich
the soil over which they spread, and cover with a fer-
tile mould, the rocks to which they are attached.

The Rein Deer of the North is supported by the
branched coralline lichen, Cenomycerangiferina which
grows luxuriantly beneath the Lapland snows, at a
season when the vegetation of all other plants is abso-
lutely arrested.

The Iceland Moss, Cetraria Icelandica thrives in a
country where no kind of grain reaches maturity, and
is pulverized by the inhabitants who use it as food. It
is indeed the best food which consumptive patients can
use, and for them, it is imported into the United States.
Probably some of our own Lichens might answer the
same valuable purposes. We know that the Lungwort
Pulmonaria has possessed a high reputation, and fur-
ther investigation may establish its efficacy as a medi-
cine.

Many of the Lichens have been employed in the
arts ; some as affording colouring materials and others
as yielding mucilage, which has been substituted for
the more costly gums of Crete and Arabia.

5. FUNGL

The only remaining order of imperfect plants em-
braces the Fungi or Mushrooms. Destitute of leaves

• Smith.

230 IMPERFECT PLANTS.

and flowers, they appear to want every property
which would entitle them to rank with other vegetables.
In taste, they approach near to the lower tribe of ani-
mals, and by many writers they have been arranged
with zoophites, and regarded as animated beings. But
more enlightened observation and more accurate re-
search, have pointed out their analogy to some of the
preceding orders. The names of Micheli, Hedwig
and Persoon, rank high among the botanists who have
devoted their time to the investigation of this depart-
ment of botany. They have in the language of a late
writer, demonstrated that Mushrooms are organized
vegetables which consist of fibres, vessels and roots,
hat they have organs appropriated to the formation of
seeds (or gems) and that without these no reproduc-
tion can take place. In short, they spring up, flourish,
and decay, like other organized beings, after having
transmitted the principles of that vitality which they
possess, to a new race exactly similar to themselves.

The examination of Fungi presents to our view the
wrapper Fig. 127, which envelopes the fungus when
young and in its mature state remains close to the
ground ; the cap or summit, Fig. 125 which is usually
oval, and supported on the peculiar stem of the Fungus,
which stem is denominated the Stipe. The inferior sur
face cf the cap is beset with gills as in AgaricusFig. 125 ;
with pores as in Boletus 123 ; and with prickles as, in
Hydnum, Fig. 128 ; and these gills, prickles and pores,
are the seat of the reproductive organs. The stipe is
either central or lateral, solid or hollow, sometimes
connected with the gills and sometimes separate, and
these are characters to which it is often necessary to
resort.

Persoon has arranged them according to the situa

FUNGI. 231

Uon of the organs of fructification. In one order the
seeds or gems are internal as in the common Puff-ball ;
in the other they are imbedded in an appropriate mem-
brane, as in the Mushroom.

These plants notwithstanding their simple organiza-
tion have been converted to useful purposes. The
powder of the Puff-ball, Lycoperdon, is employed as a
styptic and is remarkable also for its property of
strongly repelling moisture. If a vessel is filled
with water and a little of the powder sprinkled over
its surface, the hand may be plunged to the bottom of
the vessel without coming in contact with the water.
The Mushrooms are well known articles of seasoning
and of food, which are frequently employed, and, with
safety, unless gathered by an unskilful hand.

We have now examined the various orders of the
imperfect or cryptogamous plants. Some late wrtters
apply the term agamous to some of the tribes which
LinnaBus and others associated with the Mosses and
Ferns. They apply it to those plants whose floral
organs have never been detected, being propagated by
peculiar gems (propagula) which shew themselves in
the form of a powder on the surface of the plant ; are
at no- period enclosed within a germeri, and have been
deemed with great probability mere fragments of the
external texture of the vegetable. They have no
parts of an herbaceous nature, but include the Algae,
the Hepaticae and the Fungi, * plants destitute of leaves,
and often without a stem.

* Mirbel.

CHAPTER XV*.

CLASSIFICATION.

By a recent publication it appears, that 50,000 plants
have been collected, named and described ; a number
so formidable, a subject so vast, that without the aid
of science, it would be impossible for one mind to com-
prehend the whole. No where else are system and
knowledge so intimately blended ; for here they are
so inseparable that he who denies the necessity of the
one must relinquish all pretensions to the other. With-
out system, all would be chaos and confusion ; and the
study of plants and the investigation of their character
and relations would be interesting only, as it led to the
contemplation of beautiful objects. Without system,
our subject would be no longer worthy of pursuit ; it
would neither exercise nor enlarge the mind, nor would
it strengthen the memory. Of the various modes of
arrangement that of Tournefort is distinguished for
its beauty ; that of Linnaeus for its simplicity ; that of
Jussieu for its analogy to nature.

Tournefort, the most learned botanist of his age, the
favourite of Louis his king, the pride and the boast of
his country, rendered himself immortal by reducing to
order the plants which were at that time known. His
classes are founded on the forms of the corolla, and
they were more natural, more easily understood, and
more usually studied than any others.

Were it desirable, we might in a little while become
acquainted with his classes, for each of them comprises

CLASSIFICATION. 233

one of the various forms of the corolla which have al-
ready been enumerated. But unfortunately for Tour-
nefort and his system, the various forms were not suffi-
ciently distinct, and it was frequently difficult to say-
under which class an individual plant should be arrang-
ed It therefore received different names, some of
which being extremely barbarous, would have deterred
all but the most devoted iovers of natural history from
pursuing this its most interesting portion.

In a few years it would have been discarded had not
Linnaeus appeared, its prince and its saviour, to re-
deem it from the corruptions of former, and to guard
against the innovations of future ages. With an eye
which could at a single glance discern the peculiar
features of any object ; with firmness to encounter, and
with talents to overcome, the greatest difficulties, he
planned, he accomplished more than all his predeces-
sors, and his works which remain at this day unrivalled,
will probably long continue unequalled.

The number, situation, and proportion of the sta-
mens were the foundation of his primary divisions.
These organs, so constant, so essential to the comple-
tion of the flower, so necessary for the preservation of
the vegetable kingdom, were happily selected to fur-
nish each of his Classes with an obvious immutable
character. The Orders into which his classes are
subdivided, are established on a basis equally constant,
on the number and situation of the pistils, or on some
other circumstance equally obvious and invariable.
But this system, like that of Rivinus is artificial, and
though it enables us with great facility to learn the
name of any unknown plant ; it does not pursue the
order of nature, nor does it, like that of Jussieu, exhibit

the affinities of the vegetable kingdom.
* 21

234 CLASSIFICATION.

" Independently of all general method of classification,
whether natural or artificial, plants, as well as animals,
are distinguished into Genera, Species and Varieties.

By Species are understood so many individuals, or,
among the generality of animals, so many pairs, a9 are
presumed to have been formed at the creation, and
have been perpetuated ever since ; for though some
animals appear to have been exterminated, we have no
reason t® suspect any new species has been produced ;
neither have we cause to suppose any species of plant
has been lost, nor any new one permanently established,
since their first formation notwithstanding the specula-
tions of some philosophers. We frequently indeed see
new Varieties, by which word is understood a varia-
tion in an established species ; but such are imperfect-
ly, or for a limited time, if at all, perpetuated in the
offspring.

A Genus comprehends one or more species, so es-
sentially different in formation, nature, and often many
adventitious qualities, from other plants, as to constitute
a distinct family or kind, no less permanent, and found-
ed in the immutable laws of the creation, than the dif-
ferent species of such a genus.

Thus the various species of Rose compose a beauti-
ful genus, known to every one who ever looked at a
plant, merely by a certain combination of ideas, but es-
sentially distinguished by clear and decisive characters.
The species of Ms form also a numerous genus, and the
Willows another ; while the interesting Linncea is too
singular and distinct to be associated with any known
plant besides and constitutes a genus by itself.

The first great and successful attempt to define the
genera of plants was made by Tournefort, and in this
his transcendant merit will ever be conspicuous, though

CLASSIFICATION. 235

his system of arrangement should be entirely forgotten,
Not that he has excelled in verbal definitions, nor
built all his genera on sure foundations ; but his fig-
ures, and his enumerations of species under each genus,
show the clearness of his conceptions, and rank him as
the father of this branch of botany.

Linnaeus first insisted on generic characters being
exclusively taken from the flowers and the fruit, and
he demonstrated these to be sufficient for all the plants
that can be discovered. He also laid it down as a
maxim, that all genera are as much founded in nature
as the species which compose them ; and hence fol-
lows one of the most just and valuable of all his princi-
ples, that a genus should furnish a character, not a char-
acter form a genus; or, in other words, that a certain
coincidence of structure, habit, and perhaps qualities,
among a number of plants, should strike the judgment
of a botanist, before he fixes on one or more technical
characters, by which to stamp and define such plants
as one natural genus.

In methodical arrangement, whether natural or arti-
ficial, every thing must give way to generic distinc-
tions. A natural system which should separate the spe-
cies of a good genus, would, by that very test alone,
prove entirely worthless ; and if such a defect be some-
times unavoidable in an artificial one, contrivances must
be adopted to remedy it ; of which Linnaeus has set us
the example, as will hereafter be explained.

Generic characters are reckoned by Linnaeus of three
kind, the factitious, the essential, and the natural, all
founded on the fructification alone, and not on the in-
florescence, nor any other part.

The first of these serves only to discriminate gene-
ra that happen to come together in the same artificial

236 CLASSIFICATION.

order or section ; the second to distinguish a particular
genus, by one striking mark, from all of the same natu-
ral order, and consequently from all other plants ; and
the third comprehends every possible mark common to
all the species of one genus.

The factitious character can never stand alone, but
may sometimes, commodiou«ly enough, be added to
more essential distinctions, as the insertion of the pe-
tals in Agrimonia, indicating the natural order to which
the plant belongs, which character, though essential to
that order, here becomes factitious.

The essential character comprehends all the distinc-
tions requisite to discriminate each genus from every
other in the system, only avoiding a repetition at every
step of the characters of the artificial class and order,
which stand at the top of each page, and are not always
essential to the character of the genus. This is the
kind of generic character now universally adopted, and
indeed the only one in common use. The learned Jus-
sieu has given it the sanction of his approbation and
adoption, as far as its plan is concerned, throughout his
immortal work, subjoining in a different type such cha-
racters and remarks as belong to the habit, or refer to
other circumstances.

The natural character seems to have been, at one
N time, what Linnaeus most esteemed. Its disadvantages
are, that it does not particularly express, nor direct the
mind to, the most important marks, and that it can ac-
cord only with such species of the genus as are known
to the author, being therefore necessarily inipe feet.
This kind of character is, however, admirable for the
illustration of any difficult natural order.

Specific characters should be constructed on similar
principles to the generic ones, as far as regards certain-

NOMENCLATURE. S3?

ty, clearness and conciseness. The genus being first
well defined, we are to seek for characters, not men-
tioned among the generic marks, for distinguishing the
species. A specific difference for the solitary species
of any genus, is therefore an absurdity. Linnaeus at
first intended his specific definitions should be used as
names ; but the invention of trivial names happily set
aside this inconvenient scheme. On this account how-
ever he limited each to twolve words, a rule to which
all philosophical naturalists have adhered, except in ca-
ses of great necessity. Nor is the admission of one
or two words beyond the allotted number reprehensi-
ble, provided the whole sentence be so neatly and per-
spicuously constructed, that the mind may comprehend
it, and compare it with others at one view ; but this
can hardly be done when the words much exceed
twelve.

Nomenclature is no less essential a branch of me-
thodical science than characteristic definitions ; for, un-
less some fixed laws, or, in other words, good sense
and perspicuity, be attended to in this department,
great confusion and uncertainty must ensue.

In all ages it has been customary to dedicate certain
plants to the honour of distinguished persons. Thus
Euphorbia commemorates the physician of Juba a Moor-
ish prince, and Gentiana immortalizes a king of Illyria.
The scientific botanists of modern times have adopted
the same mode of preserving the memory of benefac-
tors to their science ; and though the honour may have
been sometimes extended too far, that is no argument
for its total abrogation. Some uncouth names thus un-
avoidably deform our botanical books ; but this is often
effaced by the merit of their owners, and it is allowa-
ble to model them into grace as much as possible.

238 i-ASSIFICATION.

Linnasus has in several instances drawn a fanciful
analogy between botanists and their appropriate plants,
thus —

Bauhinia, after the two distinguished brothers, John
and Caspar Bauhin, has a two lobed or twin leaf.

Scheuchzeria^ a grassy Alpine plant, commemorates
the two Scheuchzers, one of whom excelled in tiie
knowledge of Alpine productions, the other in that of
Grasses.

Dorstenia, with its obselete flowers devoid of all
beauty, alludes to the antiquated and uncouth book of
Dorstenius.

Hernandia, an American plant, the most beautiful of
all trees in its foliage, but furnished with trifling blos-
soms, bears the name of a botanist highly favoured by
fortune, and allowed an ample salary for the purpose
of investigating the Natural History of the Western
world, but whose labours have not answered the ex-
pense. On the contrary

Magnolia with its noble leaves and flowers, and

Dillenia with its beautiful blossoms and fruit, serve
to immortalize two of the most meritorious among bot-
anists.

Linncea, " a depressed, abject, Lapland (and Ameri-
can) plant, long overlooked, flowering at an early age,
was named by Gronovius after its prototype Linnaeus."

Specific names should be formed on similar princi-
ples to the generic ones ; but some exceptions are al-
lowed, not only without inconvenience, but with great
advantage. Such as express the essential specific cha-
racter are unexceptionable ; but perhaps those which
express something certain, but not comprehended in
that character, are still more useful, as conveying ad-
ditional information, for which reason it is often useful

NOMENCLATURE. 239

that vernacular names should not be mere translations
of the Latin ones.

Botanists occasionally adapt a specific name to some
historical fact belonging to the plant or to the person,
whose name it bears, as Linncea borealis from the great
botanist of the north ; Murrcea exotica after one of his
favourite pupils, a foreigner ; Browallia demisa and
data, from a botanist of humble origin and character,
who afterwards became a lofty bishop, and in whose
work upon water I find the following quotation from
Seneca in the hand-writing of Linnaeus : " Many might
attain wisdom, if they did not suppose they had already
attained it." In like manner Buffonia tenuifolia i3 well
known to be a satire on the slender botanical pretensions
of the great French zoologist, as the Hillia parasitica
of Jacquin, though perhaps not meant, is an equally
just one upon our pompous Sir John Hill. I mean not
to approve of such satires. They stain the purity of
our lovely science. If a botanist does not deserve
commemoration, let him sink peaceably into oblivion.
It savours of malignity to make his crown a crown of
thorns, and if the application be unjust, it is truly diabe
lical."*

* Smith's Introduction.

CHAPTER XVII.

SYSTEM OF LINN^US.

The arrangement of Linnaeus, with some variations.,
to be hereafter explained, has been adopted by the
most eminent botanists of the present age, and it is per-
haps the most perspicuous, if not the most perfect sys-
tem which has been presented to the world.

CLASSES.

This system is composed of 24 classes, distinguished
from each other by the number, situation, proportion,
and connexion of the stamens. The first eleven of
these classes are distinguished merely by the number
of the stamens.

as in Carina and Strawberry Blite.

Collinsonia and Lilac.

Ins and Carpet weed.

Cornus and Partridge-berry.

Azalea and Currant.

Amaryllis and Lily.

Trientalis and Horse-CheSnut

Rhexia and Willow-herb.

%aurus and Rhubarb.

Kalmia and Pink.
II. Dodecandria 11 to 20 Asarum and Mignonette.

The twelfth and thirteenth classes embrace plants
whose flowers have numerous unconnected stamens,
and they are distinguished from each other by their
insertion.

1. Monandria has

1

2. Diandria

2

3. Triandria

4. Tetranectin

3

4

5. Pentrandria

5

6. Hexandria

6

7. Heptandria

8. Octandria

9. Enneandria

7
8
9

10. Decandria

10

SYSTEM OF fcWKJEUS. 241

12. Icosandria has numerous stamens inserted into
the calyx as in Spirea and Strawberry.

13. Polyandria, has numerous stamens inserted into
the receptacle, or base of the flower.

The fourteenth and fifteenth classes are distinguish-
ed by the number and proportion of the stamens.

14. Didynamia has four stamens, of which two are
long, and two are short, as in Gerardia and the Labiate
flowers.

15. Tetradynamia, has six stamens of which four
are longer than the two others, as in Iberis and Wall
flower.

In some flowers the stamens are connected into^one
ormore parcels.

16. Monadelphia has them united by their filaments
into a tube, as in Geranium and Mallows.

17. Diadelphia has its stamens united into two bun-
dles, as in Vicia, Lathyrus, and most of the Papiliona-
ceous flowers.

18. PolyadelphiahRS its stamens united into several
bundles, as in the Hypericum, and in the Orange and
Lemon.

19. Syngejiesia has the stamens united by their an-
thers into a tube, as in Cacalia and Dandelion.

20. Gynandria has the stamens united to the pistil,
and inserted either in the style or germen, as in Or-
chis and Ladies* slipper.

In the preceding classes the stamens and pistils oc-
cur in the same flower, but in some instances they are
separated, either on the same or on different plants.

21. Monoecia has stamens on the same plant with the
pistil, but not in the same flower, as in Ricinus and

Oak.

22

242

ORDERS.

22. Dioecia has stamens on one plant, and pistils on
another, as in Valisneria and Poplar.

23. Polygamic/, has stamens and pistils either in the
same flower, or in different flowers of the same plant,
or in different plants, as in Ficus and Ash.

24. Cryptogamia. — This class embraces the imper-
fect plants whose floral organs are invisible or wanting.

ORDERS.

The orders of the first thirteen classes are founded
on the number of pistils.

1. Monogynia has

1 as in Lily.

2. Digynia

2

Pink and Grasses.

3. Trigynia

3

Staphylea and Sumach

4. Tetragynia

4

Holly.

5. Pentagynia

5

Statice and Pear.

6. Hexagynia

6

Rare.

7. Heptagynia

7

Very rare.

8. Octagynia

8

Rare.

9. Enneagynia

9

Rare.

10. Decagynia

10

Poke.

11. Polygynia

many

Clematis & Columbine

The 14th class is subdivided into two orders, Gym-
nospermia, having (usually four) naked seeds as in the
Marjoram and Balm ; and Angiospermia having num-
erous seeds in a capsule, as in Snapdragon and Fox-
glove.

The loth class has two orders, distinguished like
the preceding by the fruit. The seeds of the first,
Siliculosa, are enclosed in a silicle, as in the Shep-
herd's-purse. The seeds of the second, Siliquosa, are
in a silique, as in the Wall flower and Cabbage.

The orders of the 16th, 17th and 18th classes are
founded on the number of the stamens.

LINNJEAN SYSTEM. 243

The orders of the 19th class are known by the inter-
blending of florets, which are united or separate, fer-
tile or barren.

1. Polygainia Equalis has them all united, and all
fertile.

2. Polygamia Superflua, has united discal florets, while
those of the ray produce pistils only, and all fertile.

3. Polygamia Frustranea has united discal florets,
while those of the ray, whether they produce pistils
or not, are unfertile.

4. Polygamia Necessaria has discal florets with stamens
only, while those of the ray have only pistils.

i. Polygamia Segregata has several florets, each with a

proper calyx and united anthers, all included in one

common calyx.

The orders of the 20th, 21st and 22d classes are dis-
tinguished by the number of their stamens.

The 23d class has three orders. Monoecia has the
different kinds of flowers all confined to one plant.
Dioecia has its several kinds of flowers on two plants,
and Trioecia has them on three separate plants.

The orders of the 24th class are Ferns, Mosses,
Hepaticce, Algce including the Lichens, and Fungi.

Monandria. — The class Monandria contains two orders
exemplified in Salicornia and Blitum, both American
plants. It is by no means extensive, and if we ex-
cept the Scitamineos natives of tropical regions it
is by by no means aD interesting or important class.

Diandria has three orders, but one of which occurs in
the United States, unless we choose to separate
Anthoxanthum from the genus to which it belongs.
It comprehends the Jasmineaz of Jussieu, and a
few of tne Labiate flowers such asRosemary and Sage.

%4A EXPLANATION OF THE

Triandria has three orders ; Iris, Ixia and Crocus oc-
cur in the first, as well as the Cyperoidece ; most of
the Grasses occur in the second ; and Holosteum and
Carpet-weed will exemplify the third.

Tetrandria has four orders ; Houstonia, Mitchella,
Lin/uBd, and Frasera occur in the first, all dedicated
to the memory of worthy botanists, two of whom re-
sided in this country. Galium and Scabious will
also serve to illustrate this order. The second and
third orders are extremely rare, and in the fourth
we meet with but few plants of interest. The Holly
is one.

Pentandria has seven orders. The first, (Monogynia,)
is probably the most extensive in the system of Lin-
naeus ; embracing more than sixty genera within the
limits of the United States. Among these are the
Lurid and the Rough-leaved plants, the former ex-
emplified in Stramonium, and the latter in Borage.
Azalea, Phlox, Convolvulus and Ipomoza are among
the most interesting Genera which fall within the
limits of this extensive order. In the second, we
find the umbellate plants ; in the the third, the Elder
and Viburnum; in the fourth, Parnassia ; in the fifth.
Aralia, Marsh Rosemary and Flax ; and in the sixth,
we have Zanthorhiza, or Yellow Root.

llexandria has six orders. The first includes the
Lilies ; the second has Oryza, or Rice ; the third
has Trillium and Gyromia ; the fourth has Saururus ;
the fifth has Wendlandia ; and the sixth (Polyginia)
has Alisma, or Water Plantain.

Heptandria embraces but two genera within the limits
of the United States, the Horse Chesnut and Trienta-
lis, both of the first order. Africa furnishes a single
genus with two, and another with seven pistils. The

LINN.EAN CLASSES. 245

class Heptandria is probably the smallest in the Lin-
naean system.

Octandria has four orders. The first presents us with
Vaccinium and Cranberry ; Epilobium, or Willow
herb, and the Maple. Chrysosplenium, or Golden-
Saxifrage, occurs in the second order, and Polygo-
num in the third.

Enneandria has three orders. In the first, we find
Laurus, a very important genus, from which Camphor
and Cinnamon are obtained. The Sassafras, Spice-
bush and several other species of Laurus occur in
the United States. In the second order, (trigynia)
we meet with Rhubarb, but of the third, (liexagynia)
there is no American example.

Decandria has six orders. In the first, we meet with
Kalmia, Rhododendron, Pyrola and Arbutus ; in the
second, we find Saxifrage Dianthus or Pink, and
Hydrangea. Silene occurs in the third order, Mic-
ropetalon in the fourth ; Sedum and Lychnis in the
fifth, and Phytolacca or Poke in the sixth.

Dodecandria. — By several late writers this class has
been abolished, and the plants which were formerly
arranged here have been transferred to other class-
es. Some however have retained it. Lythrum, Eu-
phorbia and Halesia are American examples.

Icosandria has three orders. The Cherry, Plumb, and
Peach with rosaceous flowers, together with the Myr-
tle and Clove, occur in the first order. In the sec-
ond, (Di pentagynia) Dr. Smith, and others following
him include those plants which have from two to five
styles. It is exemplified in the Apple, Pear and
Ice- plant. The last order (Polyginia) includes the
Rose, Strawberry and several plants of the same
natural order. How admirably says Dr. Smith does
* 22

246 EXPLANATION OF THE

the fruit serve us in Rosa, Rubus, Dryas and Geum
to discriminate those, whose leaves, flowers and hab-
it all stamp them as distinct ! A student cannot do
better than to study this oider and these genera as
an introduction to the knowledge of more obscure
ones ; and the beautiful plants which compose it,
mostly familiar to everybody, are easily obtained.
Polyandria has three orders. In the first we find the
Poppy, Bloodroot, Lime tree, Cistus and Nym-
phwa. The second, (Di-pentagynia) has Larkspur,
Monk's hood, Columbine and Fennel flower ; and
the third, (polygynia) has Magnolia, Tulip tree,
Anemone, Clematis and Ranunculus, most of which are
cultivated as ornamental plants.
Didynamia has two orders. Gymnospermia, having four
naked seeds; includes the Mints, Lavender, Marjoram
and Basil ; andAngiospermia, having its seeds in a
capsule, is exemplified in Gerardia, Bartsia and
Trumpet-flower, all American plants.
Tetrad ynamia. — The first order of this class having its
fruit a silicle, is exemplified in Draba, Thlaspi or
Shepherd's Purse, Honesty and Candy-tuft ; and the
second, having its seeds in a silique, embraces the
Cabbage, Mustard, Radish and Wall-fiower, all of
which are familiar examples.

The class Monodelphia has eight orders. In Trian-
dria we find Sisyrinchium and the T^-ger flower : Pen-
tandria is illustrated by the Musk Geranium, Erodi-
um ; Heptandria by the Cape Geraniums, Pelargonium ;
Decandria by Acacia, and Crane's-bill ; and Polyan-
dria which is a very splendid order embraces the Mal-
vaceae of Jussieu.

The cla*s Diadelphia has four orders. Pentan-
dria is illustrated by Petalostemon, Hexandria by

LINN2EAN CLASSES. 247

Corydolis and Fumitory ; Octandria by Polygala ;
and Decandria by Glycine, Vetch, Locust, and most
of the Papilionaceous flowers. In this class the Le-
gume presents the most indubitable marks of distinc-
tion. A few genera have their stamens all united, but
as they possess every other character, which would
entitle them to rank in the present class, botanists have
never ventured to separate them.

The class Polydelphia has three orders, distinguished
by the number and insertion of the stamens. This
class has been rejected by many late writers, and most
of the plants which it embraces, range under the
twelfth and thirteenth classes of the Linnaean system.

The class Syngenesia has five orders. In the first,
{equalis) the florets are all perfect and fertile, being
ligulate as in the Dandelion, and tubular as in the
Thistle. The second order {superflua) contains dis-
coid and radiate flowers. The marginal florets ofthe for-
mer are either obsolete or inconspicuous, and the whole
are so arranged as to form a flat or conical surface, as
in Tansey, Everlasting, and Artemisia. The marginal
florets of the latter are ligulate, forming conspicuous
and diverging rays as in the Daisy, Aster and Chrysan-
themum. The third order (frustranea) has its mar-
ginal flv-trets unfertile though sometimes furnished with
the rudiments of pistils, and this alone will serve to
distinguish it from the preceding orders. The Sun-
flower, Sweet-Sultan, and Blue-Bottle are common
examples. Dr. Smith is inclined to abolish this order
and to rank those genera which have the rudiments of
pistils in their radiant florets, with their near relations
in the preceding order.

The fourth order {necessaria) has stamens in its dis-
cal florets, and pistils in those ofthe ray, so that both

248 EXPLANATION OF THE

are indispensable to the production of fertile seed. It
is exemplified in the Garden Marygold. ha and Po-
lymnia are American genera.

The fifth order, (Segregata) has its florets enclosed
in a partial calyx, and all included in one general calyx.
It is associated with the preceding orders by its united
anthers, but distinguished with facility by the calyx,
which is inferior, and not like the chaffy pappus supe-
rior to the seed. Globe Thistle and Elephantopus are
the only examples to which we can refer. This class
includes the compound flowers, which are particularly
abundant in the United States. The orders are with
some difficulty distinguished by the inexperienced bot-
anist, but the common calyx, the pappus, and the re-
ceptacle furnish abundant marks for distinguishing the
Genera.

The class Gynandria, with stamens or sessile anthers
united to the pistil, has seven orders ; only four of
which occur in the United States. In the first, we
find the Orchidecs of Jussieu, wh@se glutinous pollen
is found in yellow masses, pollinia, enclosed in two
antheroid cells ; and these cells are either contigu-
ous or removed from each other to the opposite sides
of the style. The best division of the Orchidece is
founded on the structure of the anther, " which is
sometimes parallel to an unadhering stigma, and fixed,
and permanent, at others, crowning the column, and
generally moveable, lid-shaped and deciduous."*

Some writers regard the column merely as a style,
but Mr. Brown describes it as formed by the incorpo-
ration of this organ with three filaments, two of which
are usually sterile, as in Orchis.

In the second order (diandria) we find Cypripedium
* Journal of Science, &c.

LIJTNJEAN SYSTEM. 249

distinguished from the preceding by its having a pair
of very distinct double celled anthers, and by its large
inflated nectary. In the order Hexandria we find
Aristolochia ; and the Virginia Snake root, well known
throughout the country will serve as an example.
Other species of this singular genus occur in the
Southern states.

Monoecia.-Several late writers have abolished this and
the two following classes, and when the structure of the
accessory parts of the flower is the same, Dr. Smith is
inclined to admit the change as an improvement. " But
with respect to those Monoecious or Dioecious genera
whose barren flowers are decidedly unlike the fertile
ones, the former being in a catkin, and the latter not,
as in the Chesnut and Oak, I conceive nothing more
pernicious or troublesome can be attempted than to
remove them to the classes of united flowers. They
meet with no allies there, but, on the contrary, form
so natural an assemblage by themselves, as to be unan-
imously kept separate by the authors of every natural
system that has appeared."*

In the first orders of this class we meet with a few
aquatic plants and a few Grasses. In the fourth we
find the Birch and Nettle, Amaranthus in the fifth.
Zizania or wild Rice in the sixth, and in the remaining
orders, the Oak and many other of the forest trees.

The class Dioecia having eight orders is illustrated
by Valisneria, Me?iispermum ) Dioscorea, Persimmon
and Poplar.

The class Polygamia, having different flowers on
the same, and on different plants, has been abolished
by many writers. Dr. Smith proposed to unite it with

* Smith's Introduction.

250 EXPLANATION OF THE

the two preceding, and Pursh, adopting this plan, ha$
arranged them all in one class, termed Diclinia in allu-
sion to their separate flowers.

" Such are the principles of the Linnaean Classes and
Orders, which have the advantage of all other systems
in facility, if not in conformity to the arrangement of
nature ; the latter merit they do not claim. They are
happily founded on two organs, not only essential to a
plant, but both necessarily present at the same time ;
for though the Orders of the 14th and 15th Classes
are distinguished by the fruit, they can be clearly as-
certained even in the earliest state of the germen.

Like all human inventions, however, this system bas
its imperfections and difficulties. If we meet in gardens
with double or monstrous flowers, whose essential or-
gans of fructification are deformed, multiplied, or
changed to petals ; or if we find a solitary barren, or
fertile blossom only ; we must be at a loss, and in such
cases could only guess at a new plant from its natural
resemblance to some known one. But the principal
imperfection of the System in question consists, not
merely in what arises from variations in number or
structure among the parts of a flower, against which
system could provide, but in the differences which
sometimes occur between the number of Stamens,
Styles, kc. in different plants of the same natural ge-
nus. Thus, some species of Ccrastium have only 4,
others, 5 Stamens, though the greater part have 10.
Lychnis dioica has the Stamens on one plant, the Pistils
on another, though the rest of the genus ha3 them unit-
ed in the same flower ; and there are several similar
instances ; for number in the parts of fructification is
no more invariable than other characters, and even
more uncertain than such as are founded on insertion,

LINN^AN SYSTEM. 251

or the connexion of one part with another. Against
these inconveniences the author of this System has
provided an all-sufficient remedy. At the head of
every Class and Order, after the genera which proper-
ly belong to them, he enumerates, in italics, all the
anomalous species of genera stationed in other places,
that by their own peculiar number of Stamens or Styles,
should belong to the Class or Order in question, but
which are thus easily found with their brethren by
means of the index.

It is further to be observed that Linnaeus, ever
aware of the importance of keeping the natural affini-
ties of plants in view, has in each of his artificial Or-
ders, and sections of those orders, arranged the genera
according to those affinities ; while at the head of each
class, in his System, he places the same genera accord-
ing to their technical characters ; thus combining, as
far as art can keep pace with nature, the merits of a
natural and an artificial system.

From the foregoing remarks it is easy to compre-
hend what is the real and highly important use of the
Genera Plantarum of Jussieu arranged in Natural Or-
ders, the most learned botanical work that has appear-
ed since the Species Plantarum of Linnaeus, and the
most useful to those who study the philosophy of bet-
micsd arrangement."

» Smith,

CHAPTER XVIII,

NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIEU,

It is more than forty years since the arrangement of
Jussieu was approved by the Royal Academy at Paris.
Other systems had determined some of the natural affi-
nities, but they offer at the same time numerous dis-
parities which render them very defective. Linnaeus
and Adanson, one in his Fragments, and the other in his
Families, had done much, and the elder Jussieu had
arranged in natural groups the plants of the Royal
gardens at Paris, but he was too diffident to publish
an arrangement which he regarded as incomplete.
Adopting the same principles, his relative and success-
or has traced with unrivalled success the order of na-
ture, and detected the affinities for which others had
sought in vain. His three primary divisions are found-
ed on the form of the embryo. The first embraces
those plants whose seeds are destitute of lobes, and are
named acotyledons ; the second includes all plants with
a solitary lobe and termed monocotyledons, while
plants whose seeds are furnished with a pair of lobes
are comprehended in the third division.

The number of the petals and the relative situation
of the different parts of the flower, furnish a character
for each of his classes ; while the orders into which
these classes are distributed, are less determinate,
being established on the structure of more variable
organs.

MONOCOTYLEDONS.

1. ACOTYLEDONS.

The first division, containing but one class, in sub-
divided into six orders, and includes in addition to the
Imperfect or Cryptygamous plants, a few aquatics of
very simple structure, associated together in the order
Naiades, whose character is by no means well de-
fined.

2. MONOCOTYLEDONS.

This division embraces three classes, the first hav
mg its stamens inserted beneath the germen, the sec-
ond having them inserted into the calyx or corolla, and
ihe third having them united to the pistils.

Class 1 . Stamens Hypogynous.

Calyx inferior, Corolla wanting, Germen simple,
Leaves alternate and sheathing.

1. Aroidece. — Flowers on a spadix, usually situated on
the summit of a leafless stalk ; exemplified in Arum,
Calla, Pothos and Acorns.

2. Tijphce. — Flowers aggregate, monoecious ; calyx
three leaved ; style simple. Examples, Typha' and
Sparganwm.

3. Cypcroideo3. — Flowers united or monoecious, each
enclosed in calycine valves. Germen simple, surr
mounted by two or three stigmas. Seed naked or
arillate, sometimes enclosed in bristles or hairs
arising from its base. Culm terete, or three sided,
usually knotless. Sheath of the leaves entire.
This order embraces Grasses of a coarse texture,
exemplified in the Rushes, Sedge, and Cypress
grass.

23

254 NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIEU.

4. Graminece. — Flowers usually in a panicle or spike^
let, enclosed in a glume or valves. Stamens usually
three. Germen simple, surmounted by two styles,
and plumose stigmas ; Embryo minute, partially sur-
rounded by a large farinaceous albumen. Roots
fibrous and capillary. Culm cylindrical, hollow,
jointed, simple and herbaceous, sheath of the leaves
parted. The vegetable kingdom does not present a
more natural or a more useful tribe of plants than
the Grasses. They thrive in every section of the
globe, clothing the earth with verdure, and supply-
ing the cattle with herbage, and man with his " daily
bread."

Class 2. Stamens Perigynous.

1. Palma. — Flowers diclinious arranged on a spadix.
Calyx, six-parted, without a corolla. Stamens six
or more. Germens, one or three. Fruit a drupe,
of one or three monospermous cells. Seed hard.
Embryo in the cavity of a large corneous albumen.
The Palms have a simple cylindrical stem, terminated
in a tuft of persistent, palmate, or pinnate leaves.

2. Asparagi. — Calyx, (Corolla Desfontaines) six-part-
ed. Stamens six. Germen simple, usually superi-
or. Embryo at the base of a corneous albumen.
Leaves usually alternate. This order is exemplified
in the following American genera : Convallaria,
Trillum and Gyromia.

3. Junci.— Flowers in a spathe. Calyx inferior six-
parted, (the three interior segments usually large
and petaloid.) Germen and fruit simple or com-
pound, exemplified in Swiderwert, Arrow-head and
Mis ma.

MONOCOTYLEDON'S. 255

4. LiUacece— Corolla* naked, six-parted or hexapeta-
lous. Stamens epipetalous. Germen superior, sur-
mounted by one style and three stigmas. Capsule
with three valves, and three polyspermous cells.
Lilies and Tulips are examples.

5. Bromelia>.— Calyx six-parted, the three interior
segments resembling petals. Stamens six. Ger-
men simple, surmounted by a simple style, and three
stigmas. Fruit three-celled. Leaves sheathing.
Flowers in a spike or panicle, each in a spathe.
Agave, Bromelia and Tillandsia are examples.

6. Asphodeli. — Corolla six-parted, tubular. Stamens
six. Germen superior, simple. Style one. Stig-
ma simple or trifid. Capsule with three valves, and
three polyspermous cells. Leaves alternate, usually
radical. Aletris, Aloe and Hyacinthus are examples.

7. Narcissi. — Stamens six. Germen inferior. Ama-
ryllis, Snowdrop and Jonquil are examples, distin-
guished from the Liliaceae by the situation of the
germen.

8. hides. — Stamens three. Germen inferior. This
order is distinguished from the preceding by the
number of its stamens.

Class 3. Stamens epigynous.

1. Musa. — Calyx superior, two-parted. Stamens six.
Germen inferior. Fruit three-celled. No examples
of this order occur in the United States.

2. Cannot. — Stamen one ; filament attached to the base
of the style. Germen simple. Style simple and
filiform. Capsule inferior, polyspermous, with
three cells, and three valves. This order includes

* Desfontaines.

256 NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUS5IEU.

Scitaminex or spicy plants, distinguished from the
remaining Cannes, by the structure of the anther.

3. Orchidece. — Corolla superior, organs of fructification
connate. Pollen (in one or two anthers) accumulated
in masses of determinate forms. Capsule one-celled,
with three polyspe^mous receptocles attached to
the axes of the valves. Seeds minute, with an al-
bumen, but no vitellus.* Orchis and Cypripedium
are examples.

4. Hyclrocharides. — This order is not sufficiently defin-
ed^ but embraces those plants with enigyrous sta-
mens, which could not be referred to the preceding
classes. Valisneria and Hydrocharis are examples.

3. DICOTYLEDONS.
Class 1. Flowers apeialous. Stamens cpigynous.

1. Aristolochiai. — Calyx of one leaf. Stamens deter-
minate, attached co the genaen. Style simple. Stig-
ma divided. Germen inferior. Cells of the capsule
polyspermous. Aristolochia and Asarum are Amer-
ican examples.

Class 2. Flowers apetalous. Stamens perigynous.

1. JEleagni. — Stamens attached to the superior part of
the tube of the calyx. Gormen inferior. Style
simple, surmounted by a solitary stigma. Fruifc
either a monospermous capsule, or a fleshy drupe.
Nyssa or Tupelo is an American example.

2. Thymelece. — Calyx of one leaf, tubular and coloured.
Stamens attached to the superior part of the tube.
Germen superior. Fruit monospermous. Embryo

* Brown

DICOTYLEDONS. 257

without albumen ; radicle superior. Dirca and
Daphne are examples.

3. Protece. — Calyx four or five parted. Stamens four
or five, inserted into the segments of the calyx.
Germen simple, superior. Seed naked, or included
in a capsule of one cell. Embryo without albumen ;
radicle superior. This order embraces trees and
shrubs of tropical regions, with alternate persistent
leaves, and with flowers equally remarkable for
their variety and splendour. No example of this
order occurs in the United States.

4. Lauri. — Calyx persistent, coloured. Stamens dis-
posed in two rows, and adhering to the base of the
calyx : anthers adnate. Germen superior. Fruit
a monospermous drupe. Embryo without albumen ;
radicle superior. Stems woody. Leaves alternate,
usually perennial and aromatic. Sassafras and Spice-
bush, both species of Laurus occur in the United
States.

5. Polygonece. — Calyx coloured and deeply parted.
Stamens determinate, adhering to the base of the
Calyx. Germen superior. Seed naked, or enclos-
ed by the Calyx. Embryo surrounded by the farina-
ceous albumen. Polygonum and Rumex are com-
mon examples.

6. Atriplices — Calyx deeply parted. Stamens attach-
ed to the base of the calyx. Germen superior.
Seed solitary, frequently naked. Embryo exterior
to the farinaceous albumen. Atriplex, Blitum and
Salicornia are examples.

Class 3. Flowers apetalous. Stamens hypogynous.

1. Amaranthi. — Calyx coloured, persistent, deeply part-
ed, and enclosed by scales. Stamens distinct, ©r
* 23

258 NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIKU.

united by their filaments. Germen superior. Fruit
a capsule of one cell. Embryo enclosing the farina-
ceous albumen. Amaranthus, Celosia and Gomphre-
na are examples.

2. Plantagines. — Calyx of one leaf, tube petaloid. Sta-
mens four, inserted into the base of the tube. Em-
bryo enveloped by a corneous albumen. Plantago is
the only example which this country affords.

3. Nyctagines. — Calyx tubular, sometimes calyculate.
Germen one. Seed one, often enclosed by the per-
sistent base of the calyx. Albumen surrounded by
the Corcle. Mirabilis and Boerhaavia are examples.

4. Plumbagines. — Calyx tubular. Corolla inserted
with or upon the petals. Capsule monospermous.
Embryo surrounded by the farinaceous albumen.
Stem herbaceous or shrubby. Leaves alternate*
Plumbago and Statice are examples.

Class 4. Corolla monopetalou$ y inserted beneath the
germen.

1. Lysimachice. — Corolla regular. Stamens commonly
five, equal in number, and opposite the lobes of the
corolla. Fruitwith one cell, polyspermous. Exam-
ples. Lysimachia, Primula and Anagallis. Many plants
which Jussieu referred to this order are included by
Decandolle in the order Globularice.

2. Pediculares. — Calyx monophyllous, persistent. Co-
rolla irregular. Germen supeiior. Capsule with
two cells and two valves centrally united to the par-
tition. Seeds minute. Ex. Bartsia, Veronica and
Polygala.

3. Acanthi. — Calyx monophyllous, persistent. Corol-
la irregular. Capsule with two cells and two

FLOWERS MONGPETALOUS. £59

valves, opening with an elastic spring. Ex. Aeanthus
Ruellia and Justicia.

4. Jasminece. — Calyx monophyllous. Corolla regular.
Stamens two. Fruit two-celled. Syringa, Chionan-
thus, Fraxinus and Olea are examples.

5. Vitices. — Calyx and Corolla tubular. Stamens us-
ually four, didynamous. Seeds in a berry or cap-
sule. Ex. Vitex, Verbena and Lantana.

6. Labiatce. — Calyx tubular, five-parted or bi-labiate.
Corolla irregular. Stamens didynamous. Germen
four-lobed. Seeds four, naked, attached to the recep-
tacle at the base of the calyx. Embryo straight with-
out albumen. This order embraces thirty genera in
the United States, exemplified in Mentha, Stachys and
Teucrium.

7. Scrophularia. — Corolla irregular. Stamens two ; or
four, and didynamous. Capsule with two cells, and
two concave valves, with the seed bearing partition
united to their margin. Seeds numerous and small.
Albumen fleshy. Digitalis, Gerardia and Mimulus
are examples.

8. Solanece. — Calyx five-parted, persistent. Corolla reg-
ular five- cleft. Stamens five, epipetalous. Embryo
curved or spiral. Albumen fleshy. Datura, Atro-
pa and Solanum are examples.

9. Borraginece. — Calyx five-parted, persistent. Corol-
la regular. Stamens five. Germen simple or four
lobed. Seeds four, niked, and attached to the base
of the style, or enclosed in a vessel. Embryo with-
out albumen. Leaves alternate and rough. Borage,
Lycopsis and Lithospermum are examples.

10. Convolvuli. — Calyx five-parted. Corolla regular.
Stamens five epipetalous. Capsule with 2, 3 or 4

260 NATURAL SYSTEM ©P JtJSSIEW.

cells. Embryo in a mucilaginous albumen ; radicle
inferior. Stem sarmentose. Leaves alternate.

11. Polemonia. — Corolla regular, five-lobed. Sta-
mens five, inserted into the tube of the corolla.
Germen surmounted by one style, and three stigmas.
Capsule enclosed by the persistent calyx, three-
celled and three valved. Embryo in the centre of
a corneous albumen, radicle inferior. Phlox, Can-
tua, and Polemonium are American examples.

12. Bignonice. — Calyx divided. Corolla irregular.
Stamens four, didynamous, and accompanied by a
sterile filament. Capsule two-celled, two-valved.
Embryo without albumen. Chelone, Bignonia and
Catalpa are American examples.

13. Gentia?ice. — Calyx monophyllous, divided. Corolla
regular, its border parted. Stamens epipetalous
equalling the divisions of the corolla. Capsule of
one or two cells, and two valves, polyspermous, the
seeds attached to the margin of the valves, and the
partitions formed by their inflection. Leaves op-
posite, entire, and sessile. Gentiana, Frasera and
Spigelia are American examples.

14. Apocynece. — Calyx five-parted. Corolla five lobed,
(with an internal nectary or Lepanthium.) Stamens
five, inserted into the corolla, and alternating with
its lobes. Two seed vessels. Seed frequently
comose. Embryo straight, surrounded by a minute
fleshy albumen. Vmca, Nerium and Asclepias are
examples.

15. — Sapotce. — Calyx divided, persistent. Corolla
regular. Stamens opposite the segments of the
Corolla. Germen one. Fruit a berry or drupe,
with one, or several monospermous cells. Seed
hard and shining, marked by a lateral scar. Stem

FLOWERS MONOFETALOUS,

261

shrubby. Leaves alternate and undivided. This
order embraces milkj plants, of which Bumelia is
the only American example.

Class 5. Flowers Monopetatous, Corolla Perigynous.

I. Guaiacance.— Stamens adhering to the Coroila,
Fruit a capsule or berry of several moDCSpennous
cells. Embryo in a fleshy albumen. This order
embraces trees and shrubs, with alternate leaves
and axillary flowers. Halesia, Hopea, and Siyrax are
American genera.

>. Khododendra. — Calyx persistent, five-parted. Sta-
mens determinate, inserted into the corolla, or at-
tached to the base of the calyx. Germen superior.
Capsule many-valved, each valve by the introflexion
of its margins, constituting a polyspermous cell.
This order embraces shrubs with alternate leaves
and splendid flowers, most of which are natives of
the United States. Kalmia, Azalea, Rhododendrum
and Rhodora are of the number.

3. Erica*. — Stamens adhering to the base of the corol-
la or inserted into the calyx. Anthers crested.
Fruit a capsule or berry, having numerous polysper-
mous cells. Arbutus, Andromeda, Clethra and Pyrola
are common examples.

1. Campanulacece. — Calyx persistent. Corolla attached
to its summit. Stamens usually five, inserted below
the corolla. Capsule polyspermous. Cells numer-
ous, opening by lateral pores. Campanula and Lo-
belia are referred to this order.

Class 6. Flowers monopetatous. Corolla epigynous.
Anthers connate. This class embraces the com-
pound flowers and is subdivided into three orders,
distinguished by the structure of the florets,

262 NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIEU,

1. Chicoracece. — Florets ail ligulate and united or fer-
tile. Leaves alternate, flowers commonly yellow.
Leontodon and Lactuca are examples.

2. CinarocephaLa. — Florets all tubular. Leaves alter-
nate, often spinous, colours of the flowers various.
Carthamus, Arctium and Centaurea are examples.

3. CorymbifercB. — Flowers mostly radiate, the discal
floret3 being tubular, and those of the ray being ligu-
late. This is a very extensive order, embracing
more than fifty genera within the limits of the United
States. Helianthus and Aster are examples.

Class 7. Flowers Monopetalous* Corolla epigy nous .
Anthers distinct. Calyx raonophyllous. Corolla
monopetalous. Stamens determinate. Filaments
inserted into the coroOa. Germen simple, in-
ferior.

1. Dipsacece. — Capsule monospermous, resembling a
single seed. Embryo without albumen. Radicle
superior. Stern herbaceous. Leaves opposite.
Flowers aggregate, enclosed in a common polyphyl-
lous calyx. Dipsacus and Scabiosa are examples.

2. Rubiacece. — Stamens four or five, alternating with
the segments of the corolla. Fruit usually two
naked seeds ; or two celled and polyepermous. Em-
bryo small, slender, laterally involved in a large cor-
neous albumen. Leaves entire, verticillate or op-
posite with intermediate stipules. Galium, Housto-
nia, Mitchella and Gardenia are examples.

3. Caprifolia. — Stamens usually five, alternating with
the divisions of the corolla. Fruit a berry or cap-
sule, usually crowned by the persistent calyx. Em-
bryo in a cavity at the summit of a fleshy albumen.
Leaves opposite and without intermediate stipules'-

FLOWERS POLYPETALG1JS 263

Linncea, Triosteum and Diervilla are American
examples.

Class 8. Flowers polypetalous. Stamens epigynous.
Calyx monophyllous, superior. Stamens alterna-
ting with the petals. Germen inferior, simple.
Styles two or more. Germen minute, oblong, in
the summit of a hard or ligneous albumen.

1. Aralioe. — Seeds in a capsule or berry. Aralia and
Panax are American genera.

2. Umbelliferce. — Stamens and petals 5. Styles and
Stigmas two. Fruit parted by a perpendicular sec-
tion into two naked seeds. Leaves alternate, and
usually compound, with sheathing petioles. This
order includes the umbelliferous plants. Exempli-
fied in Parsley and Hemlock.

Class 9. Flowers polypetalous. Stame?is hypogynous ,

The arrangement of this extensive class into orders
not merely natural in themselves, but exhibiting a grad-
ual transition from one to the other, must have been a
work of no ordinary difficulty. Stamens within a poly-
petalous corolla, inserted beneath the germen, consti-
tute the primary character of the class ; which em-
braces more than twenty orders. Those marks which
served as a guide in the distribution of many of the
former classes, are here of comparatively small impor-
tance. The stamens are variable in their number,
union and proportion. The fruit which furnished a
character for the monopetalous flowers, is here of less
importance, nor will the number of the styles and
cells, or the situation of the seeds, furnish invariable
marks of distinction. The situation of the embryo in
the seed, the presence, or absence, and nature of the

264 NATURAL SYSTEM OF Jl/SSIEU.

albumen, afford characters remarkably constant, and
abundantly adequate to the purposes of arrangement.
By attending to these, Jussieu has subdivided one of
the most extensive classes in his system, into orders
which are usually well defined, and in most cases strict-
ly natural.

1. Ranunculacece. — Stamens indeterminate. Anthers
adnate. Germens numerous. Embryo minute,
placed at the summit of the corneous albumen.
Leaves generally simple and palmate or lobed.
Anemone, Ranunculus and Clematis are examples.

2. Papavaraceai. — Calyx usually two-leaved, decidu-
ous. Petals four. Germen simple. Stigma sessile.
Capsule one-celled, polyspermous. Seeds attached
to a lateral receptacle, each partially invested by a
membranaceous covering. Argemone, Papaver, and
Sanguinaria, are examples.

'3. Cruciferce. — Calyx of four leaves. Petals four, cru-
ciform, and alternating wiih the leaves of the calyx.
Stamens six, two short. Style persistent. Fruit a
silique. Seeds without albumen. Lunaria, Chei-
ranthus, and Thlaspi, are examples.

4. Capparides. — Germen simple. Fruit a berry or si-
lique. Seeds attached to the sides of the fruit. Em-
bryo without albumen, radicle curved. Leaves
alternate. Cleorne and Parnassia are examples.

5. Sapindi. — Petals four or five, inserted into a disc
beneath the germen. Stamens usually eight. Fruit
a drupe or capsule, with two or three monospermous
cells. Embryo without albumen. Lobes incurved.
Cardiospermum and Sapindus are examples.

6. Acera. — Petals and stamens inserted into a glandular
disc beneath the germen. Fruit a many celled cap-
sule, or two or three monospermous capsules, united

FLOWERS POLYPETALOIS. 266

at their base. Embryo without albumen. JEsculus
and Acer are examples.

7. Malpighice. — The plants of this order rank with the
Acera.

8. Hyperica. — Stamens united into several parcels.
Germen simple. Styles numerous. Fruit a cap-
sule, with valves inflected, forming numerous cells
Seeds minute. Embryo straight, without albumen.
Leaves opposite, simple and entire. Hypericum
and Ascyrmn are examples.

9. Guttiferce. — Petals usually four. Fruit one celled.
Embryo straight, without albumen. Leaves oppo-
site, coriaceous, glabrous and veined. This order
comprehends trees and shrubs, natives of tropical
regions, and abounding in a resinous juice. Chisia
is the only American example.

10. Aurantia. — Fruit a berry or capsule, with one or
many cells, each enclosing one or two seeds. Em-
bryo straight without albumen. This order con-
tains shrubs with dotted or glandular leaves, exem-
plified in the Orange and Lemon.

11. Melice. — Calyx monophyllous : petals four or
five, filaments united. Germen simple. Fruit a ber-
ry or capsule with many cells, each containing
one or two seeds. Embryo straight, without albu-
men. Stem shrubby, branches alternate. Leaves
alternate, without stipules. Winteriana and Melia
are examples.

12. Vites. — Calyx monophyllous. Petals four or five.
Stamens opposite the petals. Germen simple. Fruit
aberry. Seeds hard, lobes plain. Embryo straight,
without albumen. Stems sarmentose. Leaves
without stipules. Tendrils and peduncles opposite
the leaves. Cissut and Vitis are examples.

24

^t)0 NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIEU.

»

13. Gerania. — Calyx persistent. Petals five. Stamens
ten, filaments united. Germen simple ; style per-
sistent ; stigmas five. Fruit, five capsules, or five
cells, usually monospermous. Embryo without al-
bumen. Stem jointed. Leaves with stipules. Ge-
ranium, Erodium and Oxalis are examples.

14. Malvacece. — Petals five, attached to the column,
formed by the union of the filaments. Capsules
numerous and circularly arranged around the base
of the style ; or simple and containing many cells.
Embryo without albumen ; lobes incurved ; corru-
gated. Leaves alternate, accompanied by stipules.
Althaea, Gordonia and Malva are examples.

15. Magnolia. — Stamens numerous, distinct. Anthers
adnate. Germens numerous, placed on a common
receptacle. Capsules numerous, each containing
one or two seeds, sometimes coalescing and forming
an aggregate seed-vessel. Embryo straight, at the
base of the fleshy albumen. Stem shrubby. Leaves
alternate, and accompanied by deciduous stipules.
Magnolia and Liriodendron are examples.

16. Annonoe. — Calyx persistent, three-lobed. Petals
six. Germens numerous. Berries or capsules nu-
merous, each monospermous. The interior or mem-
branaceous coat of the seed plaited, and enfolding a
large solid albumen. Embryo very minute, at the
scar or base of the seed. Annona and Porcelia are
examples.

11. Menisperma. — Germens numerous. Berries or
reniform capsules monospermous. Embryo small, at
the summit of a large incurved fleshy albumen.
Stem shrubby, sarmentose. Leaves alternate, sim-
ple and without stipules. Menispermum and Cissam-
pelos are examples.

FLOWERS POLYPETALOUS,

267

1 8. Berberides. — Stamens and petals equally numerous.
Germen simple, fruit a capsule, or berry, of one
polyspermous cell. Embiyo straight, albumen fleshy.
Radicle inferior. Lobes plain. Berberis, Epime-
dium and Hamamelis are examples.

1 9. Tiliacece. — Petals alternating with the calycine leaf-
lets. Stamens numerous ; filaments distinct. Ger-
men simple. Fruit a berry or capsule, polysper-
mous. — Embryo enclosed in a fleshy albumen.
Leaves alternate, simple and accompanied by sti-
pules. Bixa and Tilia are examples.

20. Cisti.— Calyx five parted.— Petals five. Stamens
numerous. Germen simple, surmounted by one
style and one stigma. Seeds, valves, and cells of the
capsule numerous. Embryo incurved within a slen-
der albumen. Stem shrubby or herbaceous. Leaves
opposite. Cistus and Helianthemum are examples.

21. Rutacece.— Stamens usually ten. Germen simple.
Fruit composed of many capsules united. Seeds at-
tached to the interior angle of the valves. Embryo
enclosed in a fleshy albumen. Lobes foliaceous.
Ruta and Fribulus are examples.

22. Caryophyllece. — Calyx tubular. Petals furnished
with a claw, and alternating with the calycine seg-
ments. Germen simple. Styles and stigmas nu-
merous. Capsule polyspermous. Seeds attached
to the central receptacle. Embryo incurved, placed
around the central farinaceous albumen. Stem her-
baceous and jointed. Leaves opposite and connate.
Dla?ithus, Holostcum and Silene are examples.

Class 10. Flowers polypetalous. Stamens peri gynous,
Calyx monophyllous. Corolla inserted into the
Calyx. In this as in the preceding class, the cha-

-63 NATURAL SYSTEM OF JUSSIEU.

racter of the order is derived from the internal
structure of the seed.

1. Sempervivoz. — Petals and Calycine segments equally
numerous. Stamens determinate. Germens nu-
merous, accompanied by glandular scales at their
base. Capsule with one cell and two valves polysper-
mous. Embryo straight, placed abound a fleshy
albumen ; radicle inferior. Stem usually herbace-
ous. Leaves succulent. Sedum and Cotyledon are
examples.

2, Sxifragoe. — Calyx 4 or 5 parted. Petals arising from
the summit of the calyx and alternating with its seg-
ments. Stamens as numerous or twice as numerous
as the petals. Germen simple, superior, surmoun-
ted by two styles and stigmas. Capsule usually ter-
minating in two beaks, the extremities of the two
valves. Seeds numerous, attached to the base of
the capsule or to the inflected margin of the valves.
Albumen fleshy. Embryo straight ; radicle inferior.
Saxifraga and Chrysosplcnium are examples.

,>. Cacti. — Segments of the calyx numerous. Petals
numerous, attached to the summits of the calyx.
Stamens indeterminate. Germen inferior, surmoun-
ted by one style and several stigmas. Berry poly-
spermous. Embryo curved, without albumen. Cac-
tus is an example. The Grossularice, originally in-
cluded with the Cacti, have been separated by Des-
fontaines, and distinguished by the number of petals
and stamens, and by the internal structure of the
seed, having an embryo accompanied by a fleshy al-
bumen. Ribes is an example.

#» Portulacece. — Petals and Stamens inserted into the
base of the calyx. — Germen simple, inferior. Em-

FLOWERS POLYPETALOUS.

269

bryo incurved, enclosing a farinaceous albumen.
Claytonia and Portulaca are examples.

5. Ficoideos. — Petals attached to the summit of the
calyx. Stamens numerous. Germen simple, sur-
mounted by several styles. Cells of the capsule or
berry numerous, polyspermous. Seeds attached to
the interior angle of the cells. Embryo placed
around a farinaceous albumen. Sesuvium and Me
sembryanthemum are examples.

6. Onagrce. — Petals usually four, attached to the sum-
mit of the calyx. Stamens determinate. Germen
inferior. Capsule or berry polyspermous. Embryo
straight without albumen. This order embraces a
number of ornamental plants, among which are
Epilobium, Oenothera and Gaura.

7. Myrti. — Calyx urceolate or tubular. Petals deter-
minate, alternating with the segments of the calyx.
Stamens indeterminate. Embryo straight without
albumen. Leaves simple and dotted like those of
the Orange. Myrtus, Caryophyllus and Philadelphia
are examples.

8. Melasto?nce. — Petals inserted into the summit of the
calyx, and alternating with its segments. Stamens
determinate and double the number of petals. Fila-
ments bisetos, anthers beaked. Germen superior,
enelosed by the urceolate or tubular calyx. Embryo
incurved without albumen. Leaves opposite, sim-
ple and nerved. Rhexia is an American example.

9. Salicarim. — Petals inserted into the middle of the
calyx. Stamens determinate. Germen simple superi-
or. Capsule enclosed by the calyx polyspermous,
seeds attached to the central receptacle. Embryo
straight without albumen. Lythrum and hnardia

are American genera.

* 24

270 natural system of jussieI',

10. Rosacea. — Petals usually five, inserted into the
summit of the calyx and alternating with its segments.
Stamens indeterminate. Styles arising from the
side of the germen. Seeds attached to the base of
the fruit, by a system of vessels which are inserted
into a lateral scar near their summit. Embryo
straight, without albumen. Leaves alternate, fur-
nished with stipules. Pyrus, Rosa and Rubus are
examples.

11. Leguminosoe. — In most cases the Corolla is papilio-
naceous, the stamens united into two parcels, the
fruit a legume ; the embryo curved and without al-
bumen. Sometimes the flowers are regular, and the
embryo straight, nor are the filaments always united
in two bundles : but these are exceptions. The
leaves are alternate, usually compressed and accom-
panied by stipules. Glycine, Lupinus, Hedysarum
and Mimosa are examples.

12. Terebhitaccc. — Petals three or five, inserted into
the base of the calyx. Stamens equally or twice as
numerous as the petals, inserted with them. Ger-
men superior. Cells of the fruit monospermous.
Seeds without albumen usually enclosed in a hard
nut. Radicle bent. Amyris and Rhus are American

examples.

13. Rhamni. — Divisions of the calyx, petals, and sta-
mens, equally numerous. Germen superior, sur-
rounded by a glandular ring, to which the petals and
stamens are sometimes attached. Fruit a berry or
capsule, with monospermous cells. Albumen fleshy.
Embryo straight. Cea?wthus, Ilex and Staphylea are
examples.

FLOWERS APETALOIJS. 271

Class 11. Flowers apetalous, diclinious.

This, which is the last class in the arrangement of
Jussieu, embraces five orders, whose flowers are usu-
ally separated and without petals. To many plants
however, which the learned author included under
this head, the essential character of the class does not
apply.

1. Euphorbia. — Stamens inserted into the receptacle.
Germen superior. Cells of the fruit numerous, each
composed of two elastic valves, and enclosing one or
two seeds, which are attached to the central axis,
and partially invested by an arillus. Embryo plane,
surrounded by a fleshy albumen. Euphorbia, Cro-
ton, and Ricinus, are examples.

2. Cucurbitaceoe. — Calyx (Corolla of Linnaeus and oth-
ers) superior, five-parted, coloured, and withering.
Filaments usually five, inserted into the calyx. Ex-
terior coat of the berry hard. Seeds (if numerous)
attached to the sides of the fruit. Embryo plane,
without albumen. This order embraces plants with
creeping, flexuose stems, axillary tendrils, and alter-
nate leaves, which are usually rough and cordate, or
palmate. Cucumis, Sicyos, and Bryonia are examples.
Among the plants allied to the preceding, are the
Passijlorce, which now constitute a distinct order.

3. Urticce. — Flowers in a catkin, or enclosed in a com-
mon involucre. Stamens attached to the base of the
calyx. Germen superior. Seeds ari'llate, naked, or
enclosed in the pulpy receptacle or calyx. Embryo
without albumen. The Nettle, the Fig, and the
Mulberry, are examples.

I. Amentacece. — Barren flowers in catkins ; fertile ones 3
solitary, aggregate, or in catkins. Germen superior.

272 NATURAL SYSTEM OF JtfSSIEU.

Embryo without albumen ; radicle straight. This
order embraces trees and shrubs, with alternate sim-
ple leaves, accompanied by stipules. Exemplified
in the Birch, Willow, Oak, and numerous other for-
est trees.
5. Coniferce. — Seeds enclosed in the persistent scales
of the cone, or in monospermous capsules. Embryo
cylindrical, placed in the centre of the fleshy albu-
men. Seminal leaves divided, appearing as if there
were several. Stem shrubby. Leaves persistent.
Exemplified in the Pines, Juniper, and Cedar.
Such is the outline of the system ofJussieu. Our
limits would not permit us to transcribe his characters ;
but it is thought that the preceding sketch, which has
been carefully compared with the original work, and
with others of a more recent date,* will be equally
satisfactory to those who wish to study this department
of Natural Science.

* The author whom I have most frequently consulted, is Des-
fontaines, the learned associate of Jussieu, whose interesting
volumes on Trees, &c. well deserve an English translation.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

FROM MIRBEL'S VIEWS OF VEGETABLE NATURE.

The food by which plants are nourished, and the
agents by which their growth is promoted, have been
examined in a former chapter.* To pursue the opera-
tion of these causes united, and to exhibit a compre-
hensive view of the influence of climate and soil on
vegetation, requires the aid of extensive observation,
and a knowledge of the productions of different coun-
tries. The forms of vegetables are extremely various,
and certain tribes are attached exclusively to different
countries. Some species are confined to the narrow-
est limits. The Origanum Tournefortii, discovered by
Tournefort in 1700, in the little island of Amorgos, up-
on one rock only, was found eighty years afterwards by
Sibthorp, on the same island, and upon the same rock ;
but no one has ever observed it any where else. Two
of the Orchidece, grow upon the Table Mountain at the
Cape of Good Hope ; and Thunberg, who has described
them, found them on no other spot.

Mountainous countries afford many of these local
species ; such as dwell secluded on the heights, without
ever migrating to the plains below. Thus we find that
the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Appenines, have their
peculiar Floras, and that even some separate mountains
of those great chains have species allotted to them alone ,
and which are not to be found on the adjoining sum-
mits.

Speculatively we might presume that all the individ-

* Pase 39.

274 GENERAL VIEWS,

uals of one species would establish themselves under
the same or nearly the same degrees of latitude, as they
would find a nearly similar climate. But in reality,
some species extend themselves in the direction of the
longitude, and never swerve to the right or to the left.
This is one of those anomalies of which it is not easy
to trace the cause.

It may be observed, with the exception of the
Lichens, which bid defiance to all climates alike, that a
rastly greater proportion of species is calculated to en-
dure a very high degree of warmth, than is calculated
to bear, severe cold. The progressive course of the
proportion demonstrates itself most clearly, if we di-
rect our view from the polar, towards the equinoctial
regions.

The general face of the vegetation of a country does
not depend solely upon the number, it depends also
upon the more or less remarkable characters of the
species found there. The chief part of these charac-
ters, are fixed ; and are derived from primitive crea-
tion, not from the effect of climate. As to the proposi-
tion, that certain vegetable forms are necessarily co-
existent and dependent upon certain other animal forms
in a given climate, we do not presume to controvert it ;
but sound reasoning rejects its adoption, as a doctrine,
while the connexion and reciprocal control of the phe-
nomena of nature are unknown to us. Cautious and
exact observers of those things which are the objects of
our senses, let us leave to the fancy of the poet the
bold task of unfolding the purposes of the Creator in
his works ; while we confine ourselves to the less pre-
sumptuous one of describing them as we find them.

Vegetation within the tropics fills the European
traveller with amazement, by the majesty and vigour of

FROM MIRBEL. 276

its aspect. The proportion of the woody to the her-
baceous species, is vastly more considerable towards
the Equator than in Europe ; and the difference is
therefore in favour of the equinoctial regions, for trees
give the character of grandeur to vegetation. Those
of the dicotyledonous class within the tropics, are fre-
quently conspicuous for the height and circumference
of their stems, the richness and variety of their foliage,
as well as the bright and well-contrasted colours of
their blossom. By the irregularity of their forms, they
set off to advantage the arborescent monocotyledons of
the Palm tribe, which have in general the simple so-
ber forms of our columns, of which they were the mod-
els. It is towards the Equator, that the gigantic climb-
ers, which grow to the length of several hundred yards
are found ; as well as those magnificent herbs of the Scit~
aminece and Musoe, as tall as the trees of our orchards ;
with flowers and foliage not less pre-eminent in their
dimensions. For instance, the Corypha umbraculifera,
an East Indian palm, with leaves in the form of an um-
brella, and more than six yards across ; and the Aristo-
lochia, that grows on the river of La Madalena, the
flowers of which, according to M. de Humboldt, serve
the children for hats. The far greater part of the ar-
omatic plants, belong also to the equatorial regions.

By the side of this rich and varied vegetation, that
ef Europe appears poor and tame. Here the species
of trees are few ; and all have a port and foliage in
which much sameness prevails. Their flowers make
so little show, that the generality of people, who think
nothing of the flower except the corolla, being ignorant
of the use and importance of the other parts, believe
that most trees have none at all.

The inferiority of the vegetation of Northern regions

276 GENERAL VIEWS,

will appear in a still stronger light, if we compare the
species of the same genera or tribes which grow both
in Europe and under the line. In South America,
plants of the fern-tribe, with a foliage and frutification
not very unlike our common Brake and Polypedy, grow
like Palms, and have a stalk in the form of a column.

The heaths of the northern parts of Europe are low
bushes, with feeble stems and small bloom : those of
the coasts of the Mediterranean have also a small
bloom, but their stems are taller and more robust ;
those of the Cape fascinate by the form, splendour of
colour, and size of the corolla.

The Geraniums of Europe do not approach those of
Africa in point of stature or beauty of flower.

Most plants of the Mallow-tribe with us are herba-
ceous ; those of hot climates, either shrubs or trees.
A tribe, of so little account in these parts, holds a place
among the vegetables of the most note in the equinoc-
tial regions. There it counts among its species the
Baobab and the Ceiba, the colosses of the vegetable cre-
ation : besides the "hand-tree" of Mexico, so called
from the form and disposition of the stamens of the
flower, which represent very tolerably a hand or paw
with five fingers.

The Leguminosce, or pulse-tribe furnish Europe with
many herbaceous species, several shrubs, and one mid-
dle-sized tree ; all of which, however, have leaves
composed of but few leaflets. The same tribe in the
hot climates of Asia, Africa, and America teems with
lofty trees, graced with leaves of the most delicate tex-
ture, divided and subdivided into numberless leaflets,
and playing in the wind like plumes.

The Aroidem in Europe never exceed the height of
a yard ; those of Mexico, the Brazils, and Peru some-

FROM MIRBEL. 277

times tower into the air like the Banana, of which they
assume the appearance ; at others lengthening them-
selves into supple climbers, they mount to the tops of
the highest trees.

Differences as strongly marked are exemplified in
Orchidecz. In Europe the species are low ; their flow-
ers, although equally interesting to the botanist by the
singularity of their structure as in other regions, are
too insignificant to attract the attention of any who do
not make plants an object of their study. In the tor-
rid zone, the case is quite different in regard to this
tribe ; the greater portion of which consists of species
that excite our wonder by the size and brilliancy of
their blossom ; and many, as the Vanilla, suspend their
long branches covered with a foliage of shining green,
and terminated by magnificent garlands of flowers from
the summits of trees.

The Apocynece, Boraginece, and many other tribes,
are equally examples of contrasts of a like nature.
The European nnturalist, whom the ardent thirst of
science leads under the Equator, views with ecstacy
those fertile regions, which exhibit at every step forms
familiar to him, decked in the rich attire bestowed from
the hand of a more bountiful and powerful nature.

There are beauties in a land yet wild and savage,
which disappear at the approach of civilization. In
Europe the soil abounds only in plants which are of use
to man. Domestic vegetables, by the aid and protec-
tion of the cultivator, have so trenched upon the do-
main of the wilderness, that space is scarcely left for
the existence of those for which man has no call. The
primeval forests of the Gauls and Germans have disap-
peared. Forests at this time of day are mere formal

plantations of large extent. They are intersected in all

25

278 GENERAL VIEWS,

directions by roads and paths, are explored without
difficulty ; and the wild animals no longer find safe re-
fuge in them. Generations of trees are renewed in
quick succession, on a soil which the industry of the
proprietor keeps in constant requisition, and it is mere
chance, when a single stick is left to end its career by
old age. Far in the north there are several forests
which still preserve some traces of the primeval veget-
ation of Europe. In these the oaks, spared by the
axe, acquire an enormous size ; while others, worn
out by age, fall of themselves, are decomposed, and
help unceasingly to augment the surface of the soil,
covered with high Mosses and thick Lichens, that pre-
serve a prolific moisture.

None however approach in magnificence the forests
which shade the equinoctial regions of Africa and Ame-
rica. One is never satiated in admiring there the end-
less multitude of vegetables brought into near contact
with each other, and mingled promiscuously together ;
so different among themselves, and often so extraordi-
nary in structure and produce ; those enormous trees
still exhibiting no symptoms of decay, though their age
goes back to a period at but little distance from the last
revolution of our globe ; those towering Palms, contras-
ting by their simple forms with all that surrounds them ;
those extensive climbers ; those Ratans which, knit-
ting together their long and flexible branches by num-
berless knots and turns, encircle as one group the
whole vegetation of these extensive regions. To clear
a path through these, neither fire not axe is sufficient ;
the one extinguishes for want of circulation in the air,
the other is broken or blunted by the hardness of the
wood it meets. The soil cannot afford place to the
numberless germs which it developes. Each tree dis-
putes with others, which press from all sides, the soil

FROM MIB.BEL. 279

it wants for its existence ; the strong stifle the weak ;
while rising generations obliterate even the slightest
trace of destruction and death ; vegetation never flags ;
and the earth, so far from becoming exhausted, ac-
quires new fertility from day to day. Host* of animals
of every kind, insects, birds, quadrupeds, reptiles,
beings as diversified and^strange as the vegetables of the
place itself, retire themselves under the vast canopy
of these ancient thickets, as into a citadel proof against
the attack of man.

North America, under the same degrees of latitude
as France and England, and with a colder climate, pre-
sents a far richer vegetation. There large trees, such
as the Liriodendron and Magnolia, bear the most su-
perb flowers. Those of many other trees and shrub?
vie in beauty with the flowers of the torrid zone ; the
light waving composite foliage of the Robinias and Gle-
ditschias are the counterparts of the Mimosas of the
tropics. The single genus of Oak comprehends within
the United States more species than Europe reckon*
within the whole amount of its trees.

In the northern parts of Asia vegetation differs but
slightly from that of Europe. We meet with nearly
the same genera, and similar types prevail. But in
the southern parts the character of the country is
changed. Without water, and swept by scorching
winds, the drought is extreme. The carpet of soft ver-
dure and the refreshing shade of its northern countries
and of Europe are looked for in vain. Most of the
plants have thinly-scattered long narrow arid leaves,
entire at the edge, and of a gloomy green ; several have
none at all, or at least such, as instead of leaves may
be truly termed thorns, Yet many of the trees and
ehrubs have a showy blossom. Of the former, the

280 GENERAL VIEWS,

largest in those parts belong to the myrtle tribe, and
have a punctured foliage, diffusing an .romatic scent
when bruised. There are likewise many shrubs of
the pulse-tribe with a composite foliage ; but the leaf
lets of the leaves are only evolved on the planfs first
rising from the seed. As it advances to maturity, the
naked footstalks widen into simple lanceolate blades,
or become transformed into acicular spines, resembling
the leaves of Asparagus. In New; Hollaad the Prota-
ceaz abound ; so they do at the Cape of Good Hope ;
but the LiliaceiB, which decorate the African pro-
montory so profusely, are, on the contrary, rare in
New Holland. It is a fact as notorious as surprising,
that no one vegetable belonging to the countries to-
wards the southern pole produces a single fruit for the
food of man.

There are divers conditions, without the perfor-
mance of which the growth of the different species
cannot proceed. An uninterrupted heat is requisite for
some ; a moment's decrease in it is fatal to them ; some
withstand a considerable degree of cold while their sap
is quiescent, but want a high degree of heat when that
is once in motion ; some like a moderate temperature,
and dread equally the excess of both heat and cold. It
is upon the observation of such appearances that the
cultivator grounds his practice ; he knows that it would
be in vain for him to attempt to grow, without shelter,
either the Date or Orange, beyond the 43d degree of
northern latitude ; that the Olive will do a little be-
yond ; that the vine is barren beyond the latitude of
50 degrees, or at least never brings its grape to per-
fection. He is cautious of exposing in a southern as-
pect, the species whose sap is readily set in motion by
the first gleam of warmth ; he knows that the Jate

FROM MIRBEL. 281

frosts destroy ,them j witness, the vineyards round
Paris : the plantations there which escape the injuries
of frost, are not those which look towards the south,
but those that look towards the north. The sap of
the latter is set in motion late, and when the heat
reaches them the season is already settled, and no risk
is run from the inroad of cold.

Late frosts are peculiarly hurtful to the delicate
American and Botany Bay plants, which we are at-
tempting to naturalize in Europe. Many of these will
bear a very sharp cold in the heart of winter ; but no
sooner does the spring advance, and a softer air prevail,
than their roots begin to elaborate their juices under
ground, their bark to fill with moisture, their buds to
swell and open, and a fall in the temperature if but for
one moment destroys them.

In proportion as we advance towards the Pole, we
are sensible of a change in the appearance of the vege
tation. The species which require a mild and tempe-
rate climate, are supplied by others which delight in
cold. The forests fill with pines, firs, and birches,
the natural decoration of a northern, laiuL The birch,
of all trees, is the one that bears the severity of the
climate the longest ; but the nearer it approaches the
Pole, the smaller it grows ; its trunk dwindles and be-
comes stunted, and the branches knotty, till at last it
ceases to grow at all towards the 70th degree of lati-
tude, the point where man gives up the cultivation of
corn. Further on, shrubs, bushes, and herbaceous
plants only are to be met with. Wild Thyme, Daph-
nes, Creeping Willows, and Brambles, cover the face
of the rocks. It is in these cold regions that the ber-
ries of the Rubus Rusticus acquire their delicious fla-
vour and perfume. Shrubs disappear in their tun>>
* 25

282 GENERAL VIEWS,.

They are succeeded by low herbs, furnished witii
leaves at the root, from the midst of which rises a short
stalk surmounted by small flowers. These pretty
plants take up their quarters in the clefts of rocks,
while the Grasses with their numerous slender leaves
spread themselves over the soil, which they cover as
with a rich verdant carpet. The Lichen, which feeds
the rein-deer, sometimes mixes in the turf: some-
times of itself covers vast tracts of country ; its white
tufts standing in clumps of various forms, looking like
hillocks of snow which the sun has not yet dissolved.
If we go farther, a naked land, sterile soil, rocks, and
eternal snows, are all we find. The last vestiges of ve-
getation are some pulverulent byssi, and some crustace-
ous Lichens, which cover the rocks in motley patches.

The principal causes which induce this progression
of changes are three : 1st, the excess of duration in
the winters, a consequence of the obliquity and dis-
appearance of the solar rays ; 2d, the dryness of the
air, a consequence of the decrease of heat ; 3d, the
prolonged action of the light, which illumines the hori-
zon through the whole period of vegetation. I will
resume, in as few words as I can, the effects of each of
these three causes.

It is well known that too great a degree of cold, by
eongealing the sap, occasions the rupture of the vascu-
lar system in plants, and thereby destroys them ; but
the deleterious action of cold is not confined to purely
mechanical results ; it has been proved that heat is a
stimulus that cannot be dispensed with in vegetation.
Many species secrete juices in warmer regions which
are unkhown in their economy in colder climates. The
Ash yields manna in Calabria, but loses that faculty as
it advances towards the nortfi. The grape m the soutb

Sfrom mirbel. 2B3

of Europe abounds in matter of a sweet quality ; in the
north, it contains an excess of acid. So long as the or-
ganic functions, which depend upon the degree or du-
ration of heat, can be carried on, the Ash and the Vine
continue to grow ; they grow even when those func-
tions are performed incompletely ; but their growth is
stinted. They finally disappear at that point where
the portion of warmth in the atmosphere, though still
equal to prevent the freezing of the sap, is no longer
able to stimulate their organs or their frame into action.
All other vegetables, whose dimension and duration
subject them to the full severity of the frost, share the
same destiny at a greater or less distance from the
torrid zone, and in proportion as their constitutions re-
quire a greater or less degree of heat. So that nothing
is found near the Pole but such dwarf shrubs as are
sheltered under the snow in winter, or annuals anil
herbaceous species, endowed with so quick a principle
of life, as to rise, flower, and fruit within the space of
three months ; or some agamous and cryptogamous spe-
cies, which adapt themselves to all degrees of temper-
ature, and are consequently the last organic forms un-
der which vegetable life is to be described.

Heat and moisture united are highly favourable to the
growth of plants. No countries are more abundant in
herbaceous vegetables, or better wooded than Senegal,
Guinea, and Cayenne, where both these props of veg»
tation are in the plenitude of their force. Experiments
made with the hygrometer prove that the moisture of
the atmosphere increases as we approach the Equator.
In hot climates, when the sun sinks below the horizon,
the watery exhalations condensed, are returned to the
earth in the form of dew, that moistens the surface of
the foliage, and feeds those vegetables in which the ab-

284 GENERAL VIEWS,

sorbing powers of the parts above ground suffice for
their support. Of this number are the succulent plants,
whose fibrous root only serves to hold them in their
places ; and the moisture of the atmosphere is inhaled
and retained by the spongy parts above. Thus in the
vast plains that receive the waters from the eastern
declivity of the Andes, when the scorching heat of
summer has consumed the grasses and other herbaceous
kinds which the rainy season had brought forth, we still
find some lingering Cacti, which, under their dry,
thorny coats, conceal a cellular system, by which an
abundant sap has been imbibed and preserved. But in
countries where the atmosphere holds but little mois-
ture in evaporation, either because the soil is wholly
destitute of water, or by reason of the coldness of the
temperature, we find no plants at all, or such only as
are of dry, hard texture. The sands of Africa, water-
ed by no river, are found to be utterly barren. Spitz-
berg, Nova-Zembla, Kamschatka, &.c. where the in-
fluence of the sun is only felt for two months in the year
at most, and where, consequently, the air is habitually
dry, furnish a very scanty portion of herbaceous plants
only, or some dwarf shrubs, with a narrow leathery fol-
iage. It is true that drought is not in these instances
the sole cause of the degenerated state of vegetation,
but it would of itself be sufficient to produce it : for it
is a fact, that plants acquire height of stem and breadth
of foliage, only in proportion to the abundance of nu-
triment they meet with in the atmosphere, and that nu-
triment is water reduced into vapour, and held in sus-
pension by the atmosphere.

When vegetables^are deprived of light, they extend
in length, shoot up pale, lank stalks are of a lax fibre,
and of no substance : in short, they spindle themselves

FROM MIRBEL. 286

out. The way that light acts upon this class of the
creation, is principally in separating the elementary
parts of the water and carbonic acid contained in them,
and in extricating the oxygen of the latter. The car-
bon of the acid, with the hydrogen and oxygen of the
water, form the bases of the gums, resins, and oils,
which flow in the vessels or fill the cells. Thes^ juices
nourish the membranes, and induce the woody state in
them ; and they do this in proportion as the light is
stronger and its action more prolonged. Thus we see
tha^ darkness and light have effects directly opposite up-
on "vegetables. Darkness favours the length of their
growth by keeping up the pliancy of their parts ; light
consolidates them, and stops growth by favouring nutri-
tion. It should follow that a fine race of vegetables,
one that unites in due proportion, size, and strength,
depends in part upon the proper reciprocation of nights
and days. Now in the northernmost regions, plants go
through all the stages of growth at a time when the sun
no longer quits the horizon ; and the light, of which
they experience the unremitting effect, hardens them
before they have time to lengthen. So their growth ie
quick, but of short duration ; they are robust, but un-
dersized.

The same plants, when transplanted into milder re-
gions, where the atmosphere is moist, and light and
darkness follow in regular succession ; if they are but
endowed with a frame of sufficient pliancy to support
their new mode of existence, are seen to lengthen their
stems, expand their branches, as well as multipy, di-
late, and soften their leaves.

Vegetation, in ascending above the level of the sea,
undergoes modifications analagous to those which attend
its progress from the line to either pole ; with this

286 GENERAL VIEWS,

distinction, that in the last case the phenomena succeed
by almost impercep f ible gradations, while they crowd
upon and follow each other in rapid succession on the
ascent of mountains. The height of 4 or 5000 yards
in the hottest parts of the globe, produces changes as
distinct as the 2000 leagues or more, which lie between
the Equator and the polar regions. The three causes
of the influence of which we have just spoken, all re-
appear within this space ; the heat is diminished, the
air is dry, and the duration of light is protracted. Te
these we must add two others ; a decrease of depth in
the volume of the air, and a scarcity of those substan-
ces which abound in carbon, and are produced by the
decomposition of organic bodies.

Many of the less perfect plants grow under circumstan-
ces the most unfavourable to vegetation. Neither the
total privation or the excess of light, nor the extremes
of moisture or dryness, nor scorching heat or the fierc-
est cold, nor want of mould or scantiness of carbon,
prevent these rude species from developing their
forms ; neither are they of small importance in the ge-
neral economy of nature. By them the soil is prepar-
ed, and they lay the foundation of vegetation.

The rudest of the Lichens, mere coloured crusts of
the simplest structure, first fix themselves on the smooth
surface of the rock which they erode, break up, and
scoop into hollows. These at last are turned into dust.
Sorts a degree higher in the scale of organization, to-
gether with some elegantly formed Mosees, resembling
trees and shrubs in miniature, take their place. By
the successive dissolution and regeneration of such ve-
getation through a long series of years, a thin stratum
of mould is formed upon the stone, in which Herbs and
Grasses take root and grow. Generations succeed each

FROM MIRBEL. 287

other, and the mould deepens. Herbs of higher nat-
ure, bushes, and even shrubs, take their stand on the
newly fertilized rock. At last, the seeds of Uees them-
selves, carried either by anicmls, the water, or the
wind, are seen to cermin^.te, probably to become the
first inhabitants of a forest that shall one day extend it-
self over vast tracts of country.

Lichens will not grow upon sands that are set in mo-
tion by the wind ; but the Grasses which are nearly as
unformed and rude, afford some turfy species with fine
closely fibred roots ; by these they weave themselves
together and bind down the sand, which every breeze
had used to drive to and fro like the surge of the sea.
The soil once made stable, vegetables of every size
thrive in it. Hence the industrious inhabitant of Eu-
rope has been taught, to use the sea lyme-grass and
others of the same nature, to fix the sand of those
beaches which threaten to encroach on his fields near
the shores of the sea.

The bottoms of the marsh and lake are gradually
though slowly raised by aquatic plants. The water
gaining in surface what it loses in depth, is sometimes
made to overflow at one side or the other ; and even to
disappear entirely, when the springs which feed it are
no longer able to counterbalance the waste from evapo-
ration, whieh increases with the surface.

It sometimes happens that certain species, especial-
ly of the Bog-Moss, float themselves on marshes and
lakes, forming islets and small peninsulas, which are
increased from day to day, both in extent and depth,
from the accumulated wreck, and remains of the plants
which have grown on them. This factitious soil is
sometimes clothed by meadows, sometimes by shrubs,
and even trees : when now and then it breaks under the

288 GENERAL VIEWS,

weight of the load, and sinks to the bottom of the wa-
ter. These appearances are by no means uncommon
in the north of Europe. The effect they hare in chang-
ing the face of the soil is greater or less according to
circumstance?, and in certain districts they may even
affect perceptibly the temperature and quality of the
atmosphere ; but scarcely beyond the spot where they
take place. Jn regard to forests, however, the case is
very different ; their influence is felt far around. Their
usual effect is to'cool the atmosphere, to a greater extent
even than the degree of latitude. When France and Ger-
man} r were covered with wood, Europe was much colder
than at present ; the winters of Italy were longer ; the
Vine could not be cultivated on this sidejof Grenoble ;
the Seine froze every year. The parts of the coast of
Cayenne which have been cleared of their wood by
Europeans, experience in summer in its full force the
overwhelming heat of the sun of the torrid zone, while,
in the same season, the interior of the country is cool-
ed to such a degree by forests, that a fire or shelter is
found necessary in order to pass the night.

The causes why forests thus lower the temperature,
are plain. They detain and condense the clouds as these
pass ; they pour into the atmosphere volumes of water
dissolved into vapour ; winds do not penetrate into their
recesses ; the sun never warms the earth they shade ;
and the soil being porous, as formed in part of the de-
cayed leaves, branches, and stems of trees, and coated
over besides by a thick bed of brushwood and moss, is
constantly in a state of moisture. The hollows in them
serve as reservoirs for cold and stagnant waters, their
declivities give rise to numberless brooks and rivulets ;
and, as we see, the best wooded countries are ever
those which are watered by the largest rivers.

FROM MIRBEL. &#9

In proportion as man, who finds himself cramped in
countries of long standing civilization, extends the
boundaries of his domain by stripping the soil of its
ancient forests, so the wind and sun disperse the su-
perabundant moisture ; the springs exhaust themselves ;
the lakes dry up ; inundations cease altogether, or
confine themselves to a smaller extent ; the volume
of water carried along by rivers diminishes ; and the
atmosphere becomes warmer and drier. These are
results that cannot be denied, and, without mentioning
the numerous evidences which history offers, it will
be sufficient to adduce the United States of America as
a proof. It is a fact admitted by all, that the clearing
of the woods began two centuries ago in the European
colonies, and continued unceasingly to this day, has
occasioned a very evident diminution in the quantity
of water, and a perceptible elevation in the tempera-
ture of the climate. But where, from improvidence
or brutal selfishness, man has destroyed the woods of
a country without reserve, the soil, bereft of the mois-
ture requisite to the maintenance of vegetation, has
been reduced to the most fearful sterility. The Cape
Verd islands, once watered by numerous springs, and
covered with lofty forests and luxuriant herbage, now
present to our view only waterless gullies, rocks bared
of their mould, with here and there a patch of parched
herbs, some stunted bushes, and a few plants of the
succulent kind. The Isle of France, formerly so
fruitful, is at this moment threatened with the same
sterility, if the wisdom of government does not hasten
to set proper bounds to the improvident waste of the
woods by the falls now carrying on.

In mountainous countries, above all others, the des-
truction of trees produces the worst effects. The for
26

290

GENERAL VIEWS,

ests which encircle them above, are the protection of
the fields below ; but when once the axe is used
among them without a due discretion, the rain breaks
up and carries off the layer of mould no longer consoli*
dated by roots ; large and deep gullies are cut by the
descending torrents on all sides ; the snow, accumula-
ted on the summits during winter, slides down the de-
clivities, and finding no dam that stops it, enormous
masses are precipitated with a dreadful crash to the
bottom of the valleys, destroying in their way the
fields with their cattle, and the villages with their in-
habitants. The rock once laid bare, the rain-water
which penetrates its clefts, silently undermines it ;
the frost cracks and crumbles it away ; it falls in ruins,
accumulating at the foot of the mountain mounds of
rubbish. This is an evil which has no remedy ; the
forests once banished from the highland tops are never
replaced ; while the washings and rubble carried down
yearly by the rain, soon transform into a desert the
populous and flourishing valley below.

The vegetable mould produced by herbaceous plants
upon unsheltered land is destroyed by the action of
light, heat and oxygen, while that which is formed in
the shade of forests, defended from the effects of these
destructive agents, increases from day to day, both by
the remains of vegetables, as well as of the animals of
all kinds which seek refuge in them. This is the reas-
on why newly-cleared land is endowed with such pro-
digious fertility. In this either rye or oats must be
cultivated for the first years, its too abundant richness
causing the more precious wheat to grow rank, and
produce little grain. But sooner or later, the soil is
exhausted, and recourse must be had to manure, to
restore the nutritious particles earned off by success-

FROM MIRBEL. 291

ive crops. If this is neglected, harvests begin to
dwindle, briers and brambles and a thousand wild
plants take the places of those which had been pro-
duced by agriculture. The flocks diminish rapidly ;
for the increase of flocks, and consequently of the hu-
man race, depends above ail things upon the prosperity
of agriculture.

All is connected in the vast system of the globe, and
order emanates from the equipoise of conflicting phe-
nomena. Animals carry oft' the oxygen of the atmos-
phere, replacing it by carbonic acid gas ; and are thus
at work to adulterate the constitution of the air, and
render it unfit for respiration. Vegetables take up the
fixed air, retain the carbon, and give out oxygen ; and
are thus purifying the air tainted by animals, and re-
establishing the necessary proportions between its ele-
ments. In Europe, while our vegetables, stripped by
the severity of the season of their foliage, no longer
yield the air contributing to life, the salutary gas is
borne tons by trade-winds from the southernmost re-
gions of America. Winds from all quarters of the
world intermingle thus the various strata of the at-
mosphere, and keep its constitution uniform in all
reasons and at all elevations. The substances which
are produced by the dissolution of animal and vegetable
matter, diluted with water, are absorbed by plants, and
constitute a portion of the nourishment by which they
are maintained ; plants, in their turn, become the food
of animals, and these again the prey of others which
subsist on flesh. In spite of this perpetual state of war
and destruction, notlur.g perishes, for all is regenerat-
ed. Nature has ordained that the t ■». o ereat divisions of
organized beings should d? nd the one upon the other
for support ; ana thai both the life a»d death of indi-

292 GENERAL VIEWS, &C.

viduals should be equally serviceable in keeping up the
races of thern..

If we come to consider vegetation as it regards our-
selves, we shall find that this great agent of nature,
subjected in a certain degree to the control of man
constituted in a state of society, is the main source of
his prosperity or of his misery. How many countries
have the greedy ambition of princes, and the degrada-
tion and ignorance of the people, made barren ? Re-
collect what Asia Minor, Judea, Egypt, the provinces
at the foot of Mount Atlas have been, and behold what
they ar-e at this day. R-ecollect Greece, once the
country ofSci ihee and of liberty, now that of ignor-
ance and of slavery ; she can be only recognized in
her ruins, and her monuments of the dead. Man had
denied his labour to the earth, and the earth her treas-
ures to man : all vanished with agriculture. The
traveller who passes that country of so great renown,
finds in the place of the fine forests that crowned its
mountains, or the rich harvests reaped by twenty busy
nations, or the numerous flocks that enriched its fields,
only naked rocks and sterile sands, with here and there
a miserable village. He seeks in vain for several
rivers recorded in history ; they are gone.*

* The preceding summary "from Mirbel," has been abstr
* d from the Journal of Science, &c.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Plate I. Fig. 1. Represents the epidermis of the
common Pink, so magnified as to exhibit the exhaling
orifices. 2. The epidermis of the Lily magnified to
shew the same. 3. The epidermis with areas which
contain the evaporating pores of Hedwig. 4. A hori-
zontal section of a wood}' stem exhibiting a magnified
view of its vessels ; a represents the simple tubes ; b
the porous tubes ; c the false spiral tubes ; d the mix-
ed tubes. 5. Represents the spiral vessels. 6. The
same magnified. 7. A transverse section of a woody
stem. 8. The same magnified. 9. A fibrous root. 10.
A granulated root. It, A scaly bulbous root. 12. A tu-
nicate or coated bulb. 13. A palmate root. 14. The
root of Utricularia with numerous air cells, which pre-
vent the plant from sinking in water. 15. A creeping
root.

Plate II. Fig. 16. Represents a dichotomous
stem with connate perfoliate leaves. 17, Azalea with
determinate branches. 18. The English Ivy with
radicating tendrils. 19. A voluble stem twining from
left to right. 20. A Passion flower climbing by the
aid of spiral tendrils. Its leaves are cordate ; its
stipules in pairs ; its tendrils axillary : and its radiant
nectaries filiform. 21. A scaly stem. 22. The Eng-
lish Cowslip with radical leaves, having its flowers
on a scape which terminates in a simple umbel. 23.
The winged stem of the Thistle with spinous leaves.
24. Polypodium vulgare a dorsiferous fern whose
stem furnishes an example of the Stipe. 25. An arti-
culated stem of the Cactus. 26. Uvularia with a
perfoliate leaf.

Plate III. Fig. 27. Brasenm with a peltate leaf.
28. Ovate leaf. 29. Spatulate leaf. 30. A lanceo-
late leaf. 31. Dioscorea glauca has cordate leaves
which are 9 nerved. 32. Gill has a reniform and
crenate leaf. 33. A hastate leaf, 34. A sagittate
leaf. 35. An unequal leaf. 36. A sinuate leaf.
37. A runcinate leaf. 38. A palmate leaf. 39. A
* 26

294 EXPLANATION OF

three-lobed leaf. 40. A parted leaf with incised
segments. 41. A pinnatafid leaf. 42. The leaves of
wood- sorrel are ternate and obcordate. 43. A pinnate
leaf of the Sensitive plant. 44. Interruptedly pin-
nate. 45. Verticillate. 46. Pedate.

Plate IV. Fig. 47. Represents a repand leaf. 48
The truncate leaf of the Tulip tree. 49. A ciliate
leaf. 50. A doubly compound leaf. 51. A bi-tubular
leaf. 52. A flower-bearing l^af. 53. The leaf of Sar-
racenia^purpurea. 54. The leaf of Nepenthes distilla-
toria. 55. The leaf of Dioncea muscipula. 5G. The
linear leaf of grasses with a stipule arising from the
summit of its sheath. 57. and 5e. exhibit the cortical
net ofle ves. 59. Glands on the fruit of the Rose.
60. The leaf of the common Nettle, covered with
stings. 61 The flower of Atractylis defended by
thorns.

Plate V. Fig. 62. Represents an umbel. 63. A
cyme. 64. A corymb. 65. A spike. 66. A raceme.
67. A head. 68. A whirl. 69. A panicle. 70. A
spikelet, 6, theinvolucellate filaments which surround
the germen in many of the Cyperoidece. 71. A Catkin.
72. A Cone, a represents the scales so dissected as to
exhibit the fructification within. 73. A compound
flower with an imbricate calyx and tubular florets.
74. The involu-ellate filaments of Scirpus. 75. The
«ame organs in Schamus.

Plate VI. Fig. 76. Represents a monapetalous
flower with a trumpet-shaped corolla, and a b 11 shaped
Calyx. 77. A nakeH flower of the Lily, with 6 petals,
6 stamens and one pistil. 78. The same flower with
the petals removed ; ana are the anthers ; b the stigma.
79. A papilionaceous flower. 80. The stamens and
pistils of the same, the latter with a plumose or bearded
stigma. 81. A labiate flower. 82. A flower of
Asrro-tis with a valvular calyx, forked anthers, and plu-
mose stigmas. 83. A flower of the Oat, with a spiral
awn attached to the interior valves or corolla. 84.
A double -*alvx. 85. Pamassia with its nectaries
terminating in* filaments and tipped with globose sum-
mits. 86. A nectary of Pamassia palustris. 87. The
nectary or lepanihium of Asclepias. 88. Nectaries
ef Jlconitum. 89. A three celled capsule. 90. A
Samara or winged monospermous capsule. 9 1 . A ber-

THE PLATES. 295

ry. 92. A drupe. 93. An apple. 94. A filbert nut.

Plate. VII. Fig. 95. Represents a section of the
Cocoa nut. 96. A strawberry. 97. A silique. 98. A
silicle. 99. A legume. 100. The receptacle of the
Dandelion. 101. Arum Triphyllum, whose spathe en-
closes a spadix. 102. The fruit of Geranium. 103.
The pappus of Salsify. 104. The bracte of the Lime
tree. 105. The seed of Clematis. 106. A seed
shewing the scar, to which the vessels of the capsile
are attached. 107. The filbert shewing the embryo.
108. The Persimmon with an oblique embryo. 109.
A germinating seed. 11C. The lobes converted into
seminal leaves. 111. The incurved embryo of the
Kidney bean.

Plate VIII. Cryptogamia, Fig. 112. Represents
a section of a fern whose organs of fructification are
coveied by an indusium. 113. The indusium, and
the capsule with its transverse ring. 114. Equisetum
with its fructification on a spike. 1 15. One of its pel-
tate receptacles. 116. Its unripe seeds, surrounded
by four stamens. 117. The fertile flowers of Funana
hygrometica. 118. The capsule of a Moss magnified
to shew its fringe and lid. 119. Herbage and flowers
of Jungermannia complanata. 120. The same magni-
fied. 121. The herbage (thai his) ofParmelia stellaris.
122. The shield (apothecium) of a Lichen magnified
to shew the seeds or gems by which these plants are
propagated. 123. Boletus, having pores beneath the
cap of tf.e Fungus. 124. Hydnum vith prickles. 125.
Agoricus :\ ith £i\U whichcontain the gem>. 126. The
fru tification otMarchantia. 127. Lycoperdon slellatum
a fu'tgus with a stellate volva. 128. Bryum androgy-
nu<n, a moss with unfertile flowers. 129. Polytricium
commune with its fructification concealed by a veil, a
represents the veil ; b the capsule ; c the same with
the lid removed ; d the lid. 130. The unfertile flow-
ers of the same mo-*s. 131 and 132 the barren and
fertile flowers of Mosses according to the representa-
tion of Hedwig.

INDEX.

Page.

Page.

Abrupt,

98, 130

Bullate,

131

Abruptly branched,

114

Caducous,

170, 178

Aceroee,

125

Calcarate,

179

Acotyledons,

253

Calycuiatc,

170

Aculeate,

132

Calyx,

169

Acuminate,

129

Cambium,

77

Acute,

129

Campanulate,

174

Adnate

182| Capillary,

125

iEqualis,

247 Capsule,

202

Agamous,

231 Carnose or fleshy,

207

Aggregate,

187 (Catkin,

160

Albumen,

30, 206

Cells,

202

Alburnum,

63

Cellular Integument,

58

Algae,

227

Channelled,

120, 131

Alternate,

113, 122

Ciliate,

130

Ament,

166

Cirrhose,

129

Ancipital,

113

Classes,

240, 253

Angiospermia,

246

Clasping,

123

Angular,

125

Claw,

174

Annual,

93

Cleft,

127, 169

ADther

182

Cluster, Raceme,

166

Antheridlum,

183

Coloured,

132

Apetalous,

186

Column,

202

Appendages,

152

Compact,

114

Appressed,

122

Common receptacle,

185

Arborescent,

calyx,

170

Anllus

210

iCompound,

J 24, 173

Armature,

161

Compressed,

113, 121

Articulated,

114

Cone,

204

Ascending,

112

Conjugate,

120

Auriculate,

132

Connate,

123

Awn,

21

Corcle, Embryo,

209

Axillary,

163

Cordate,

125

Banner,

ira

Coriaceous,

132

Barren,

1861

Corneous,

207

Base,

185'

Corolla,

173

Beak,

21»

Cortical layers,

59

Beard,

179'

net,

136

Berry,

203'

Corymb,

164

Biennial,

93

Cotyledons,

30,208

Bifarious,

122

Creeping,

97

Binate,

128

Crenate,

130

Bipinnacifid,

128

Cresceav-shaped,

126

Biprnnate,

129

Cruciform,

175

Biternate,

129

Cryptogamia,

220

Brachiate,

113

Cucullate,

125

Bracte,

172

C -'i i,

118

Buds,

152JC .--.te,

125

Bulbs,

98, 156

led,

131

INDEX.

297

Cuticle, epidermis,

53j Equal Corolla,

lT'GjiEvp.n,

174

Cylindrical,

194

Cyme,

164 Evergreen,

240IJExotic,

133

Decandria,

94

Deciduous, 133,

170, 174! Exserted,

181

Dedicate,

i81

Farinaceous,

207

Decompound,

129

Fascicle,

165

Dec ur rent,

124

Fasciculated,

98, 122

Decussate,

11?

Fa.stigiate branches,

114

Dekoid,

125

Ferns,

220

Dentate,

130

Fertile flowers,

186

Denticulate,

130

Fibrous Roots,

97

Depressed,

122

Filament,

131

Diadelphia,

24li

Filiform,

125

Diandria,

240!

Fistulous,

114

Dichotomous,

113

Fleshy albumen,

207

Diclinia,

250

Flexuosestem.

113

Diclinious,

1361

Floral leaves,

122

Dicotyledons,

256'

Florets,

173

Didynamia,

241

Flowers,

168

Diffuse,

113

Flower stalk,

163

Digitate,

128;

Follicle,

202

Digynia,

242;

Food of Plants,

39

Dimediate,

172

Fringed leaves,

130

Dicecin.,

242

Fringe,

114

Dioecious,

186

Frond, 151,

221, 224

Disk,

185

Fruit,

201

Dispersion of seeds,

212

Frustranea,

243

Distichal,

114, 122

Fruticose,

94

Divaricate,

114

Fungi,

229

Diverging branches,

114

Funnel-shaped corolla

174

Dodecandria,

240

Furrowed,

96

Dotted,

130

Fusiform root,

98

Double,

170

Gems,

234

Doubly serrate,

130

General Involucre,

171

Downy, or tonientose

, 95

Generic character,

236

Drupe,

204

Geniculate,

118

Duration,

93

Germen,

183

Eliptic,

124

Germination,

30

Emarginate,

129

Glabrous,

94

Embryo,

30, 209

Glands,

160

Emersed,

122

Glandular,

179

Enneaodria,

245

Glaucous,

95

Ensiform,

132

Glossy, or polished,

95

Entire,

129

Glume,

170

Epidermis,

53

Granulated,

98

Epipetalous,

186

Gymnospermia,

246

Epigynous,

186

Gynandria,

241

Erect,

122

Hairs,

95

Erose,

130

Hastate,

126

Essential character,

236

tlead,

166

2S8

INDE2

Her^ticae,

226

iMonoeCia,

241

Heptandria,

240 (Monoecious,

186

jglerbarium, App

. vii. jMonocotyledons,

253

'ria,

,240 j vTonosjvnia,

242

Hilum, 01 Scar,

206 iMonopetalous,

173

Hirsute,

9.VMinnphvllous,

169

Hispid,

95 Mosses,

222

Koary,

96 -iucronate or Cuspidate,

He.iow,

iulti plicate,
186 Naked,

184

Hypjgynous,

115, 132

Icosandria.

241' flowers,

186

Jmlrica ed, 122

170 Native,

44

Imperfect,

220, 'Natural character,

236

Incised,

128

INatural orders.

251

Indigenous, or native

94

[Naturalized

94

Inferior,

184

Necessaria,

247

Inflated,

170

Nectary,

179

Inflorescence,

163

Nerves,

121

Involucre,

171

Nerved,

131

Involut ,

130

|Nut,

204

InvoJucellate filament?;

180

jOblique,

126

Irregular,

174

jOblong,

124

I ed,

114

'Obovate,

124

175

Obtuse,

129

Laoiafe,

174

\Ochnciy

157

Laciniate.

128

Octandru-.

246

Lanceo.atc,

125

.Opposite,

1 13, 122

Loaves,

120

Orbicular,

124

Leaf-stalks,

120

Orders,

242, 333

i:ae

202

Orifice,

176

hium.

180

Oval,

124

1

60

Ovary or Germen,

183

Li ,e.?3,

227

Palms,

117

1

157

Palmate.

98, 127

Linguiate,

175

Panicle,

166

Liliaceous,

175

Papilionaceous,

175

Lin ;ar,

125

Papillose,

95

Li:iea:e,

131

1 • 0.13,

210

Ligulate,

133 i arasitic plants,

107

Lobed,

12"! Parted,

127, 169

Lomeat,

SOZJPari

171

Lunulate orcresent form,

U6!|Par

201

Lyrate,

127 Pe< ■

128

Maratime

94i e,

129

Marescsnt or Withering,

17.. .-

163

Margin of leaves,

1

210

Membranaceous,

132

123

Midrib,

1 -

Monadelphia,

2 • sntandria,

Mon< spermous,

2* *epo.

Monandria,

24 -

. i ?rei

INDEX.

299

Ferigynous,

86

jRingent,

174

Perfoliate,

123

Roots,

97

Perianth or calyx,

169

Rosaceous,

175

Pericarp,

201

,Hot ate,

174

Persistent,

170, 174

Rugose,

130

Personate,

174

jRuncinate,

127

Petal,

173

[Sagittate,

126

Petaloid,

178, 184

iSalver-shaped,

174

Petiole,

129

'Samara,

202

Petiolate,

123

Sap,

74

Pilose,

95

Sarmentose,

112

Pinnate,

12b

.Scabrous,

95

Pinnatifid,

12*

■Scale,

170

Pistil,

182, 183

Scaly,

98, 115

Pith,

66

Scape,

163

Plaited,

131

jScar,

206

Plumose,

184

iSc ariose,

170

Plumelet or Plumule,

31

jSecretions,

80

Pollen,

183

Seeds,

205

Pollinia,

183

Segregate,

248

Polished,

95

Sempevijent,

133

Polyadelphia,

241

j Serrate,

130

Polyandria,

241

ISerrulate,

130

Polygamia,

242 Sessile,

123

Polygamous,

186 Setaceous,

125

Polygynia,

242i! Sheath,

121

Polypetalous,

174

Sheathing,

123

Polyphyllous,

169

Silique,

202

Polyspermous,

203

Silicle,

202

Pome,

203

Siliculosa,

242

Praemorse,

98 : jSiliquosa,
16l| ! Silky,

242

Prickle,

95

Prismatic,

179j Silver grain,

64

Procumbent,

112 Simple,

124

Proliferous,

117

Sinuate,

127

Pubescence,

159

Solid,

98, 114

Pulp,

59

Spadix,

167

Punctate,

130

Spathe,

172

Pyrena,

204

Spike,

165

Quinate,

129

Spikelet,

166

Raceme,

166

Spinous,

126, 170

Radical

121

Spathe,

172

Radicant,

112

Spatulate,

125

Radicles,

97

Species,

234

Ray,

185

^Specific characters,

236

Reclined,

112, 123

|Stamen9,

181

Reniform,

126

iStameniferous,

186

Repand,

130

Standard,

175

Regular,

174

Stellate or Verticillate,

122

Retuse,

1 -">

Stem,

112

Reticulate,

13!

Stemless,

114

Revolute,

130

Stigma,

184

300

INDEX.

Sting,

Stipe,

Stipules,

Stoloniferous,

Striated,

Strobile,

Style,

Suhr>>tund,

Subulate,

Succulent,

Summit of leaves,

Superflua,

Superior,

Surface,

Syngenesia,

Syngenesious,

Tail,

Tendrils,

Terete,

Terminal,

Ternate,

Testa,

Tetradynamia,

Tetragynia,

Tetrandria,

Thorn,

Three-nerved,

Thyrse,

Tomentose,

Toothed,

Triandria,

Trigynia,

Triply-nerved,

Trunks,

Truncate,

Tube,

101;

Tuberous,

97

220

Tubular,

132, 174, 175

156

Tunicated,

98

118J

Turbinated,

170

95

Turgid

170

204

Two-ranked,

114

184|

Umbel,

164

124

Uml<e)late,

164

125'

Undulate,

131

132

Unequal,

125, 174

129J

Unilateral,

166

247

United,

186.

184

Urceolate,

170, 174

94

Utricles or cells,

72

241

Valves,

170, 201

186

Variegated,

132

211

Varieties,

234

158

Vegetation,

39

113

Veil, Calyptra,

224

163

Vegetable fibre.

68

128

Veins,

121

206

Veined,

131

241

Ventricose,

170

242

Verrucose,

95

240

Verticillate,

114, 112

161

Vessels,

70

131

Villous,

95

166

Vitellus,

207

95

Voluble,

113

168

Warty,

95

240

Waved,

131

242

Whorl,

166

131

Wings,

175, 211

112

Winged,

113

129

Wood,

62

174

Woolly,

95

Preface, page vi, line 3, omit the
Page 4 for Baukin read Bauhin
125 acrose acerose

174 renguiculate unguiculate

202 Lamana Samara

246 monodelphia monadelphia
Wildenow Willdenow

II

IV

m.

MJ

vm.

New York Botanical Garden Library

QK45 .S8 gen

Sumner. Georqe/A compendium of physiolog

3 5185 00103 9823